biol 107

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43 Terms

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Prokaryotic Cytoskeleton

Simpler, with proteins like MreB (actin-like), FtsZ (tubulin-like), and Crescentin (intermediate filament-like) for shape, division, and structure.

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Eukaryotic Cytoskeleton

More complex, with microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments for shape, movement, intracellular transport, and division.

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Key Difference in Prokaryotic Cytoskeleton/

Eukaryotes have a highly organized cytoskeleton with motor proteins (dynein, kinesin, myosin), while prokaryotes have structural proteins with more limited roles.

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How Plants & Animals Move Organelles in the Cell (plants)

Use actin filaments + myosin for cytoplasmic streaming (e.g., chloroplast movement). Microtubules help position organelles but play a smaller role in transport.

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How Plants & Animals Move Organelles in the Cell (animals)

Use microtubules + motor proteins (kinesin & dynein) for long-distance transport (e.g., moving vesicles, mitochondria). Actin filaments also assist in local movement.

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What does Rubisco do?

Catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle by fixing CO₂ into an organic molecule.

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Where does glycoysis take place?

takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell

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What is the purpose of the citric acid cycle?

Extract energy from acetyl-CoA 🔥
Generate electron carriers (NADH & FADH₂) for the electron transport chain
Produce ATP (or GTP) for cellular energy 💪
Provide intermediates for biosynthesis

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How does the first law of thermodynamics affect the cell

🔄 Energy Conversion: Cells transform chemical energy from food (glucose) into ATP.
🔥 Heat Release: Some energy is always lost as heat during metabolism.
Energy Storage & Use: Energy from ATP powers cellular processes like movement, transport, and biosynthesis.

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What is an enzyme

A protein that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy, without being used up

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What does sucrase do

An enzyme that breaks down sucrose (table sugar) into glucose and fructose.

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What is the activation engery of a reaction

minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction. It is the energy needed to break bonds in reactants so that new bonds can form in products.

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How enzyme help reactants react

help reactants react by lowering the activation energy, making it easier for the reaction to occur.

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What is an exergonic reaction

chemical reaction that releases energy, usually in the form of heat or light.

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What is an endergonic reaction

chemical reaction that requires an input of energy to proceed, as the products have more energy than the reactants.

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CO2 + 2H2X → (CH2O) + H2O + X2

This is a simplified version of the photosynthesis equation, showing carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms being converted into sugars.

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2 H2O + 4 γ + 2 NADP+ + 3 ADP + 3 Pi → O2 + 2 NADPH + 3 ATP

This is the light reaction equation in photosynthesis, where water, light energy, NADP+, and ADP are used to produce oxygen, NADPH, and ATP.

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6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

This is the overall photosynthesis equation, showing how carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose and oxygen with the help of light energy.

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Relevance of Photosynthesis

  • Organism: Produces glucose (energy) for plants.

  • Ecosystem: Provides energy for the entire food chain.

  • Civilization: Supplies oxygen and food for humans and other species.

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Light

Visible electromagnetic radiation that powers photosynthesis.

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Wavelength & Frequency

Longer wavelength = lower frequency & energy; shorter wavelength = higher frequency & energy.

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Pigments

Molecules that absorb light energy (e.g., chlorophyll), used in photosynthesis.

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Atmospheric Effects on Light

The atmosphere absorbs and scatters certain wavelengths, allowing only specific parts of the spectrum (like visible light) to reach the surface.

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Chloroplast

Organelles in plant cells that contain thylakoids where photosynthesis occurs

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Photoelectric Effect

When light hits a molecule, it excites electrons, causing them to move to a higher orbital.

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Z-Scheme

A simplified diagram of the electron transport chain, showing the flow of electrons through photosystem II, cytochrome b6f, photosystem I, and NADP+.

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Linear Flow

Electrons flow through photosystem II and I, producing ATP and NADPH

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Cyclic Flow

Electrons flow only through photosystem I, producing only ATP

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ATP Creation

ATP is produced in the thylakoid membrane as protons flow through ATP synthase during electron transport

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ATP in the Dark

ATP can be forced in the dark by increasing proton concentration in the thylakoid space.

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Coupling of Reactions

Light-dependent reactions produce ATP and NADPH; these products are used in the light-independent (Calvin) cycle

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Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)

  1. Carboxylation: CO2 is fixed onto ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP).

  2. Reduction: ATP and NADPH reduce 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA) to G3P.

  3. Regeneration: RuBP is regenerated from G3P, using ATP.

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Rubisco

Enzyme that fixes CO2 in the Calvin cycle.

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Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate

5-carbon molecule that reacts with CO2.

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PGA (3-Phosphoglycerate)

Product after CO2 fixation.

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1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

Reduced form of PGA.

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G3P (Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate)

Final product used to regenerate RuBP and form glucose.

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NADPH

Provides electrons for the Calvin cycle.

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ATP Synthase

Enzyme that synthesizes ATP.

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Cytochrome b6f

Protein complex in the electron transport chain.

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Photosystem I & Il

Light-harvesting complexes involved in electron transport.

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Oxygen-evolving complex

Splits water to release oxygen during photosynthesis.

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Carboxylation vs. Oxygenation

  • Carboxylation: RuBisCO adds CO2 to RuBP, producing PGA (used in the Calvin cycle).

  • Oxygenation: RuBisCO adds O2 to RuBP, producing a toxic byproduct (photorespiration), reducing efficiency.