tools and methods of psych (6-9)

participant observation

occurs when a researcher takes an active, insider role in what they are studying.

Systematic observation

refers to the careful observation of one or more specific behaviors in a particular setting.

Coding system

a set of rules used to categorize observations

Reactivity

the possibility that the presence of the observer will affect people’s behaviors

Experience sampling method(ESM)

used to alert participants to complete a data collection procedure at that moment in time.

Day reconstruction method(DRM)

method of obtaining self-reports of daily activities, moods, and emotions. Asks participants to think about the previous day and write about distinct episodes that occurred

Psychobiography

type of case study in which a researcher applies psychological theory to explain the life of an individual

Archival research

involves using previously compiled information to answer research questions

Content analysis

the systematic analysis of existing document

Response set

a tendency to respond to survey questions from a particular perspective rather than to give anwer directly related to the questions.

Social desirability response set

the tendency to answer questions in the way that would reflect most favorably on the respondent

Yea-saying

the tendency to agree consistently

Nay saying

the tendency to disagree consistently

Close-ended questions

a limited number of response alternatives are given

Open-ended questions

respondents are free to answer any way they lik

Rating scales

which assign scores along some numerical dimension; are very common in many areas of research

Graphic rating scale

requires a mark along a continuous line

Semantic differential line

is a measure of the meaning of concepts—rating them on a series of bipolar adjectives

Pictorial scales

appropriate for populations such as children who can have trouble understanding other scales

Interview bias

the interviewer can inadvertently show approval or disapproval of certain answers

face to face interviews

interviewer and respondent meet to conduct the intervie

Focus group

an interview with a group of about 6 to 10 individuals brought together for 2-3 hours.

Panel study

the same sample of subjects is studied at two or more points in time.

Sample

the members of a population selected to participate in a research investigation

Population

the defined group of individuals from which a sample is drawn

Confidence interval

an interval of values within which there is a given level of confidence where the population value lies

Sampling error

the potential deviation from the true population value of the value obtained using sample data.

Probability sampling

each member of the population has a specificable probability (chance) of being chosen.

Simple random

every member of the population has an equal probability of being selected

Stratified random sampling

the population is divided into subgroups(strata), and random samples are taken from each strata

Cluster sampling

existing groups or geographic areas, called clusters, are identified; samples are taken from those clusters

Nonprobability sampling

the probability (chance) of any particular member of the population being chosen is unknown

Convenience sampling

“hapazahed” or “take them where you find them” samplin

Purposive sampling:

the sample meets a predetermined criterion

Snowball sampling

sampling procedure in which one or more current research participants recruit others to become part of the sample

Quota sampling

the sample reflects the numerical composition of various subgroups in the population

Sampling frame

the actual population of individuals or clusters from which the sample is drawn

Response rate

the percentage of people sampled who completed the survey

Confounding variable

a variable that varies along with the independent variable

Internal validity

the certainty with which results of an experiment can be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable rather than to some other, confounding variable.

Posttest- Only Design

A true experimental design in which the dependent variable(posttest) is measured only once, after manipulation of the independent variable.

Selection differences

differences in the type of subjects who make up each group in an experimental design. One way such differences can arise is by allowing participants to choose which group they will be assigned to.

Pretest-Posttest Design

a true experimental design in which the dependent variable is measured both before (pretest) and after (posttest) manipulation of the independent variable

attrition

the loss of subjects who decide to leave an experiment

Mortality

Repeated measures design

an experiment in which the same subjects are assigned to each group. Also known as within-subjects design or within-persons design.

Random assignment

use of random procedure to determine which condition a participant will participate in

Order effect

in a repeated measures design, the effect that the order of introducing treatment has on the dependent variable.

Practice effect (learning effect)

improvement in participant performance with repeated testing

Fatigue effect

deterioration of participant performance with repeated testing

Carryover effect

a problem that may occur in repeated measures designs of the effects on treatment are still present when the next treatment is present

Counterbalancing

a method for controlling order effects in a repeated measures design by either including all orders of treatment presentation or randomly determining the order for each subject.

Latin square

a technique to control for order effects without having all possible orders

Matched pairs design

a method of assigning subjects to groups in which pairs of subjects are matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups.

Straightforward manipulations

manipulation of the independent variable through the use of direct stimulus presentations, types of instructions and other simple procedures.

Staged manipulations (event manipulation)

manipulation of the independent variable, using complex situations, often simulating real-life social interactions.

confederate(accomplice)

a person posing as a participant in an experiment who is actually part of the experiment

Strength of manipulation

the potential amount of impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable

Self reports

measures that require participants to describe themselves

Behavioral measures

measures that require participants to engage in a specific behavior 

Psychological measures

measures of psychological activity

Galvanic skin response (GSR)

the electrical conductance of the skin, which changes when sweating occurs.

Electromyogram (EMG)

a measure of the electrical activity of muscles, including muscle tension

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

a measure of the electrical activity of the brain.

Ceiling effect

failure of a measure to detect a difference because it was too easy

Floor effect

failure of a measure to detect a difference because it was too difficult.

Demand characteristics

cues that inform the subject how he or she is expected to behave.

Filler items

items included in a questionnaire measure to help disguise the true purpose of the measure

Placebo group

 in drug research, a group given an inert substance to assess the psychological effect of receiving a treatment

Expectancy bias (expectancy effects)

the impact an experimenter’s expectations can have on the outcome of a research study.

Single blind experiment

an experimental method originating in drug research wherein research participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.

Double blind experiment

and experimental method originating in drug research wherein both research participants and experiments are unaware of participant status in the experimental or control conditions

Manipulation check

a measure used to determine whether the manipulation of the independent variable has had its intended effect on a subject.

naturalistic observations

a descriptive method in which observations are made in a natural social setting