AP Psych Unit 0 Vocab

what the sigma

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe one would have predicted an outcome after it has occurred, despite not having done so.

Overconfidence

The phenomenon of overestimating one's knowledge or accuracy regarding a subject.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of a small group or individual, often used when experiments are unethical.

Naturalistic observation

A research method where subjects are observed in their natural environment without interference.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two or more variables, indicated by the correlation coefficient (r), with the caveat that correlation does not imply causation.

Meta-analysis

A method that combines results from multiple studies to draw broader conclusions.

Experiment

A research method that manipulates one variable while controlling others to determine causation.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction that outlines expected outcomes, typically formatted as an if... then... statement.

Operational definition

Specific, measurable criteria used to define abstract concepts in research.

Replication

The process of repeating a study with different participants or conditions to verify findings.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment, corresponding to the "if" in a hypothesis.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment, corresponding to the "then" in a hypothesis.

Confounding variable

An extraneous factor that may influence the results of an experiment.

Population

The entire group of individuals that a study aims to understand or describe.

Random/representative sample

A sample where every individual has an equal chance of being selected from the population.

Convenience sampling

A sampling method that selects individuals who are easiest to access.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Placebo

A non-active treatment that resembles the real treatment, used to control for psychological effects.

Single-blind

A study design where participants are unaware of their group assignment, but researchers know.

Double-blind

A study design where both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments.

Experimenter bias

The influence of a researcher's expectations or beliefs on the study's outcomes.

Social desirability bias

The tendency for participants to respond in a manner they believe is more socially acceptable.

Likert scales

A rating scale used to measure attitudes or opinions, typically ranging from one extreme to another.

Structured interviews

Interviews that use a predetermined set of questions for consistency in data collection.

Directionality problem

The uncertainty about which variable influences the other in a correlation.

Third variable problem

The possibility that an unmeasured variable influences both variables in a correlation.

Wording effects

The impact of question phrasing on responses in surveys or interviews.

Self-report bias

The tendency for individuals to inaccurately report their feelings or behaviors.

Peer review

The process by which scholars evaluate and critique research before publication.

Institutional review board

A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards and participant safety.

Informed consent

The process of informing participants about a study's purpose, risks, and their rights before participation.

Informed assent

The requirement for parental consent for minors participating in research.

Debriefing

The process of explaining the study's purpose and any deceptions to participants after it concludes.

Regression towards the mean

The phenomenon where extreme measurements tend to move closer to the average over time.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where the mean, median, and mode are equal.

Bimodal distribution

A data distribution with two distinct peaks or modes.

Inferential statistics

Statistical methods used to determine the reliability and significance of data differences.

Effect sizes

A measure of the strength of a relationship between variables, often expressed in standard deviation units.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure (r) that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.

Statistical significance

The likelihood that observed differences in data are not due to random chance.