Map Projections and Geographic Data in Human Geography

Map Projection

The process of transferring Earth's 3D surface onto a 2D flat map.

Distortion

The alteration of the original shape, area, distance, or direction when projecting a map.

Mercator Projection

A map projection that features straight lines for navigation and is good for direction but distorts size.

Robinson Projection

A map projection with rounded edges that looks nice overall but still distorts size, shape, distance, and direction slightly.

Goode Homolosine Projection

An interrupted map projection that shows true sizes of land but has cuts and gaps in oceans.

Gall-Peters Projection

A map projection that accurately represents land area sizes but distorts shape.

Reference Maps

Maps that show where things are located, focused on locations rather than data.

Political Maps

A type of reference map that shows boundaries such as countries, states, and cities.

Physical Maps

A type of reference map that shows natural features like mountains, rivers, and deserts.

Road Maps

Maps that show highways and streets.

Thematic Maps

Maps that show a theme or data about a location, focused on patterns and relationships.

Choropleth Map

A thematic map where areas are shaded or colored to show value, such as election results by state.

Dot Distribution Map

A thematic map where dots represent a quantity, with one dot equating to a set number of people/items.

Graduated Symbol Map

A thematic map where symbols change in size to represent larger or smaller values.

Isoline Map

A thematic map where lines connect points of equal value, commonly used for weather maps.

Cartogram

A thematic map that distorts the size of places based on data, such as population.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive information that is not numerical, often used to understand feelings, ideas, and culture.

Quantitative Data

Numerical information that can be measured, often used to create maps, charts, and graphs.

Fieldwork

The process of going outside to collect data firsthand through surveys, observations, and interviews.

Geospatial Technologies

Technologies used to collect, organize, and analyze geographic data.

GPS (Global Positioning System)

A technology that pinpoints exact locations using satellites.

Remote Sensing

A method that collects data from a distance using satellites, airplanes, or drones.

Remote Sensing

Collects data from a distance (satellites, airplanes, drones).

GIS (Geographic Information System)

Stores, organizes, analyzes, and displays geographic data in layers.

GPS

Navigation/location tracking.

Urban Planning

Helps determine where to build things.

Disaster Response

Helps identify where help is needed.

Business Decisions

Involves determining where to open stores.

Environmental Management

Involves tracking climate change.

Quantitative Data

Data represented by numbers.

Qualitative Data

Data represented by descriptions.

Fieldwork

Collecting information in-person.

Personal Scale

Using geographic data in everyday life.

Government and Business Scale

Larger organizations use geographic data for planning and decision-making.

Census Data

Population counts used for funding, political districts, and policy-making.

Epidemiology

Track disease outbreaks (example: COVID-19 heat maps).

Environmental Monitoring

Remote sensing helps track deforestation or ocean temperatures.

Absolute Location

Exact spot (latitude & longitude or an address).

Relative Location

Where something is in relation to other places.

Individuals

Navigate and make daily decisions.

Businesses

Target customers, plan locations.

Governments

Public services, emergency responses.

Nonprofits

Solve social/environmental issues.

Place

The characteristics that make a location unique. Includes: Physical characteristics (mountains, rivers, climate) and Human characteristics (language, architecture, religion).

Space

The physical gap or distance between two objects. Geographers study: Distribution: How things are spread out. Patterns: Are they clustered, dispersed, random?

Flow

The movement of people, goods, ideas, or information between places. Examples: Migration of people. Trade of goods between countries. Spread of information through the internet.

Distance Decay

The farther apart things are, the less connected they tend to be. Example: You're more likely to shop at a grocery store close to you, not one across town.

Time-Space Compression

Technology makes places seem closer together. Examples: Airplanes make cross-country travel faster. Internet allows instant communication worldwide.

Clustered/Agglomerated

Things are close together. Example: Houses in a neighborhood.

Dispersed

Things are spread out. Example: Farms in rural areas.

Random

No organized pattern. Example: Distribution of gas stations.

Absolute location

Exact coordinates.

Relative location

In relation to other places.

Environmental Determinism

Idea that the environment directly shapes human actions and society. Nature controls people. Example: Ancient civilizations developed near rivers because they needed water.

Problems with Environmental Determinism

It's too simplistic. It ignores human innovation. Often used to justify racism and imperialism in history.

Possibilism

Idea that the environment sets limits, but people can adapt and make choices. Humans control their destiny by using technology and innovation. Example: Building air conditioning systems to live in hot deserts.

Environmental Determinism

Environment controls humans

Natural Resources

Renewable resources: Can replenish (ex: solar energy, forests). Nonrenewable resources: Limited supply (ex: oil, coal).

Sustainability

Using resources in ways that meet current needs without ruining future resources. Examples: Solar and wind energy. Crop rotation to preserve soil.

Modification

Humans change the environment. Example: Building dams or cutting down forests.

Adaptation

Humans adjust to the environment. Example: Wearing different clothing for the climate.

Big Picture Takeaway

Geography isn't just physical space — it's how humans and nature shape each other.

Modern Geographers' View

Modern geographers mostly reject environmental determinism and support possibilism.

Sustainability Importance

Sustainability is key for long-term survival.

Modification vs. Adaptation

Modification: Changing the environment; Adaptation: Adjusting to the environment.

Possibilism

Humans adapt and innovate.

Modification

Changing the environment.

Adaptation

Adjusting to the environment.

Sustainability

Using resources wisely for future generations.

Scale

The level at which you study something or analyze data.

Cartographic Scale

The relationship between the size of something on a map and its actual size on Earth.

Large scale map

Shows a small area with lots of detail.

Small scale map

Shows a large area with less detail.

Geographic Scale

The amount of territory something covers.

Scale of Analysis

The level at which you analyze data to find patterns.

Local Scale

City/town/neighborhood.

Regional Scale

State/region.

National Scale

Country.

Global Scale

Entire Earth.

Formal Region

An area where everyone shares one or more common characteristics.

Functional Region

An area organized around a focal point (node) and linked by movement or function.

Perceptual Region

A region that exists because of people's beliefs, feelings, and attitudes — not official boundaries.

Key Idea of Formal Region

The trait is consistent across the entire region.

Key Idea of Functional Region

The center (node) is strongest, and influence fades as you move away.

Key Idea of Perceptual Region

It's subjective — depends on people's ideas, not exact lines.

Possibilism

Humans adapt to the environment.