1.6(Sensation) and 1.4(brain) Quiz

brain stem

brain stem

consists of three main parts: the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata.
It connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord. It controls many essential life functions like consciousness, sleep, and vital signs.

medulla

The is located at the bottom of the brainstem, in front of the cerebellum. Its main functions include regulating heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and controlling actions like swallowing and vomiting.

reticular activating system (RAS)

The is a network of neurons in the brainstem that regulates arousal, consciousness, and the sleep-wake cycle. It acts as a filter, determining which sensory information reaches our awareness by activating the cerebral cortex when necessary.

reward system

The brain’s reward system is a group of structures involved in processing reward and motivating behavior. It plays a key role in learning and emotion

cerebellum

generally controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning, such as skills and habits.

The cerebral cortex

is the brain’s outermost layer and serves as the primary processing center for complex cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, perception, language, consciousness, and decision-making. It is responsible for most higher-order mental abilities. The cortex is divided into four lobes—frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital—each specializing in different functions.

The limbic system

is a group of interconnected brain structures responsible for processing emotions, managing behavior, and forming memories. It plays key roles in learning, motivation, and social processing, often considered the brain’s “emotional center.” Prominent structures within the limbic system include the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, and amygdala, each contributing to these essential functions.

The thalamus

is a brain structure critical to both psychology and physiology. It serves as a relay station for sensory and motor information, transmitting signals from the body to the cerebral cortex for processing. This includes sensory input from the eyes, ears, and body, but not from smell. Located in the middle of the brain, between the cerebral cortex and midbrain, the thalamus consists of various nuclei, each with specific functions.

The hypothalamus

is a small region at the base of the brain that acts as a control center for functions like hunger, thirst, body temperature, sleep-wake cycles, sexual behavior, and emotional responses. It regulates the body’s internal state by releasing hormones and influencing the autonomic nervous system, playing a key role in maintaining homeostasis.

pituitary gland

often referred to as the "master gland" because it is a small gland located at the base of the brain that produces hormones which control many other glands throughout the body, regulating functions like growth, metabolism, and reproduction, essentially acting as the body's primary hormonal control center; it is closely connected to the hypothalamus, another key brain region involved in hormone regulation.

The hippocampus

is a small, complex brain structure essential for learning, memory, and spatial processing. It is responsible for converting short-term memories into long-term memories, as well as storing and retrieving memories. Additionally, the hippocampus helps make memories more resistant to forgetting.

The amygdala

is a part of the brain primarily associated with processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression. It is considered a key component of the limbic system, which governs emotions and behaviors. Often referred to as the brain’s “fear center,” the amygdala quickly reacts to perceived threats, triggering the fight, flight, or freeze response.

corpus collosum

nerve fibers that connect the left and right sides of the brain- this allows them to communicate and cordinate

occipital lobes

controls visual information processings- located at rear of brian

The temporal lobes

located on the sides of the brain, are primarily responsible for controlling auditory and linguistic processing.

The parietal lobes

located near the back crown of the brain, generally control association areas that process and organize information, as well as the somatosensory cortex, which is responsible for processing touch sensitivity.

association areas

Regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate information from various sources are essential for higher cognitive processes such as learning, memory, and decision-making. These areas are responsible for the complex processing that takes place between the reception of sensory input and the resulting behavioral responses.

The somatosensory cortex

is a part of the brain that processes sensory information from the body and is involved in emotional processing. It receives and organizes sensory stimuli, determining their intensity, while also identifying the emotional significance of these stimuli, generating emotional states, and regulating emotions.

frontal lobes

Located just behind the forehead, the prefrontal cortex is responsible for linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning. In contrast, the motor cortex, situated at the rear of the frontal lobes, controls most types of skeletal movement.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC)

located at the front of the frontal lobes, regulates higher-level cognitive functions such as working memory, emotion regulation, and decision-making. It helps inhibit inappropriate actions, balance short-term rewards with long-term goals, and manage impulses, significantly influencing personality and planning abilities.

Executive functioning

skills are a set of cognitive abilities that help individuals manage and coordinate other mental processes and behaviors. These skills are essential for critical thinking, problem-solving, planning, decision-making, and task execution.

motor cortex

This refers to the area at the back of the frontal lobes that is responsible for controlling various types of skeletal movement.

split brain Reserch

Research on patients who have undergone a corpus callosotomy reveals how the brain's two hemispheres function independently. This procedure, often performed to treat severe epilepsy, allows scientists to study lateralization—where specific cognitive functions are localized in one hemisphere.

severing the corpus collosum

is a surgical procedure primarily used to treat severe epilepsy that does not respond to medication

cortex specialization

the idea that different parts of the brain preform different taks and are involved with different parts of the body

contralateral hemispheric organization

meaning that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, while the right hemisphere controls the left side. This arrangement applies to both sensory and motor functions, as well as various executive functions.

language in the left

Most language functions are predominantly located in the left hemisphere of the brain. This hemisphere is responsible for controlling the right side of the body and processes information from the right visual field. Key areas involved in language, such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area, facilitate speech production and comprehension, highlighting the left hemisphere's critical role in language-related tasks.

Broca's area

refers to a region in the left frontal lobe of the brain that is primarily associated with speech production and articulation. It plays a crucial role in forming words and sentences, enabling us to express ourselves through spoken language. Damage to Broca's area can result in Broca's aphasia, a condition characterized by difficulty speaking fluently

Wernicke's area

is a region of the brain primarily responsible for the comprehension of spoken and written language. It is located in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus, typically in the left hemisphere. This area is a crucial component of the brain's language processing network.

Aphasia

is a language disorder that impairs a person's ability to understand and express both written and spoken language. It typically results from damage to areas of the brain responsible for language, most often located in the left hemisphere. Aphasia can occur suddenly, such as after a stroke or head injury, or it may develop gradually due to conditions like a brain tumor or neurological disease.

Brain plasticity

is the brain's ability to change its structure and function in response to experience, learning, or injury. This adaptability can manifest in beneficial, neutral, or negative ways

eurogenesis

is the process of forming new neurons in the brain, primarily occurring in regions like the hippocampus, which is essential for memory and learning. This process is a vital component of brain plasticity and can be influenced by various factors

Neuroimaging/brain scans

refers to advanced technologies used to study the brain, revealing its anatomy, chemistry, physiology, and electrical activity. These brain scans serve various purposes, including diagnosing medical issues like tumors and injuries, identifying mental health conditions such as schizophrenia and anxiety disorders, understanding the relationship between different brain areas and specific mental functions, and assessing the effectiveness of treatments.

eeg

is a painless test that measures the electrical activity of the brain by attaching small metal discs called electrodes to the scalp. These electrodes detect electrical charges produced by brain cells and record the activity as wavy lines on a graph. EEGs are commonly used to diagnose brain conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, and brain tumors, and they are valuable in research for understanding brain function, communication between brain regions, and the relationship between brain activity and various disorders.

fmri

is a brain imaging technique used in psychology to study brain function and structure. It detects changes in blood flow and oxygenation, indicating which brain areas are active during specific tasks.

case studies

thorough investigation of a single individual, group, or event. Researchers collect detailed information through interviews, observations, and psychological tests to explore specific psychological processes and behaviors. This approach is particularly useful for studying rare conditions or unique situations that are difficult to replicate in a lab.

Lesions

in the brain, resulting from injury, disease, surgery, or congenital disorders, vary in size, number, and severity and can lead to various behavioral symptoms. Studying these lesions is crucial for neuroscientists, as they help link specific brain areas to behavioral deficits, enhancing our understanding of brain function.

psychosurgery

This describes a type of brain surgery aimed at treating mental illness by disconnecting or removing specific brain tissue.

Sensation

is the process of detecting physical stimuli from the environment through our sensory organs, such as the eyes, ears, and skin. It involves the initial gathering of raw data about the world. In contrast, perception is the interpretation and organization of these sensory inputs into meaningful experiences, involving mental processes that shape our understanding and responses. Essentially, sensation focuses on detection, while perception is about interpretation.

Perception

is the process of interpreting and making sense of sensory information. Unlike sensation, which involves the detection of stimuli through our senses, perception organizes and analyzes these inputs, incorporating prior knowledge and context. This transforms raw data into meaningful experiences, helping us navigate and understand our environment.

Transduction

is the process by which sensory stimuli are converted into electrical signals that can be processed by the nervous system. This occurs when sensory receptors, like those in the eyes or ears, detect physical energy (such as light or sound) and transform it into neural impulses. These impulses are then transmitted to the brain, where they are interpreted as sensations, allowing us to perceive our environment.

Absolute threshold

is the minimum level of stimulus intensity needed for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. It represents the smallest amount of physical energy required for a sensory receptor to respond and for that sensation to be consciously perceived. For example, it might refer to the faintest sound that can be heard or the lowest level of light that can be seen under ideal conditions.

difference threshold

the minimum amount of change needed in stimuli in order for the subject to sense it 50% of the time.

Weber's Law

states that the smallest noticeable difference between two stimuli (the just noticeable difference, or JND) depends on the size of the original stimulus. In simple terms, if you have a big stimulus, you need a bigger change to notice a difference, while a small stimulus needs only a small change. This means our ability to notice differences is relative to what we start with.

Sensory adaptation

is the process where our sensitivity to a constant stimulus decreases over time, such as becoming less aware of a strong smell after being in a room for a while. In contrast, habituation refers to a learned response where we stop paying attention to a repeated stimulus that is no longer relevant, like ignoring the sound of trains if we live near a track. In essence, sensory adaptation involves a change in sensory response, while habituation involves a change in behavioral response.

sensory interactions

Our five senses work together to create a complete understanding of the world, helping us respond appropriately to various stimuli. For example, smell and taste combine to create the flavor of food; in movies, visuals and music enhance the overall experience; and in speech, visual cues can influence our understanding, as seen in the McGurk effect. Additionally, when crossing train tracks, the sounds and vibrations alert us to danger. Sensory systems also interact with memory, activating sensory processing areas in the brain when recalling a place or scene.

Synesthesia

is a neurological condition where sensory information is processed across multiple senses, causing individuals to experience sensations simultaneously. For instance, someone might taste flavors when seeing shapes or associate colors with letters. Common forms include color synesthesia (sounds evoke colors) and lexical-gustatory synesthesia (words trigger tastes). Not a medical condition, synesthesia can aid in learning and memory, affecting about 4% of people. Notable figures like Kanye West and Vladimir Nabokov are thought to have experienced it.

visual sensory system

located at the back of the eye, contains photosensitive cells that capture visual information, which is then sent to the brain for processing. A blind spot exists where the optic nerve exits the eye, resulting in incomplete images. The brain compensates for this by filling in the gaps, allowing us to perceive a complete picture of the world.

retina

photosensitive surface at back of the eye

blind spot

where the visual (or optic) nerve exits the eye, humans have a

visual nerve

transmits visual information from the retina to the brain and is essential for various visual functions. It helps process brightness, color, and contrast, controls the light reflex that constricts the pupils in response to light, and regulates the accommodation reflex for focusing on nearby objects. Additionally, the optic nerve aids in anchoring circadian rhythms to the day-night cycle, influencing our sleep-wake patterns.

The lens

is a clear, curved structure that focuses light onto the retina, functioning like a camera lens to create images. It can change shape to accommodate for viewing objects at varying distances, aided by eye muscles that adjust its curvature. With age, the s loses elasticity, making it difficult to focus on close-up objects, a condition known as presbyopia.

accommodation

The eye's ability to adjust its focus for objects at different distances is known as . This visual response involves the lens changing shape to ensure clear vision, allowing us to see both near and far objects sharply.

nearsightedness

A common vision condition that occurs when light entering the eye is focused incorrectly, causing distant objects to appear blurry, is known as nearsightedness or myopia. This condition results from the eye being too long or the lens being too curved, preventing light from focusing properly on the retina.

farsightedness

A refractive error that occurs when the eye doesn't bend light properly, making it difficult to focus on close objects, is known as farsightedness or hyperopia. In this condition, the eye may be too short or the lens too flat, causing light to focus behind the retina.

photoreceptors

Specialized cells located in the retina that convert light into electrical signals are called photoreceptors. These light-sensitive cells enable us to see by detecting varying levels of light and color, allowing the brain to interpret visual information. There are two main types of photoreceptors: rods, which are responsible for low-light vision, and cones, which detect color and detail.

The fovea

is a small depression in the retina located at the center of the back of the eye, responsible for high-acuity vision. It is characterized by a high density of cone photoreceptors, which are essential for detecting color and fine detail, and lacks rod photoreceptors, making it particularly sensitive to bright light conditions.

Peripheral vision

refers to the outer edges of your visual field, allowing you to see objects outside your direct line of sight. It plays a crucial role in navigating your environment by helping you remain aware of your surroundings, even when focused on something else. While peripheral vision offers less detail and color compared to central vision, it is particularly sensitive to movement, making it effective for detecting approaching objects or sudden changes in the environment. This area of vision has fewer cones and more rods, contributing to its motion sensitivity.

Rods

are photoreceptors in the retina that help us see in low light conditions, perceive movement, and process peripheral vision. They are specialized neurons that convert light into signals for the central nervous system. More sensitive to light than cones, are responsible for perceiving the size, shape, and brightness of visual images, but they do not provide color information, which is why shapes appear in black and white in dim lightins are clustered in the periphery of the retina, with about 130 million present in the human eye. They play a key role in detecting movement in our peripheral vision, and it takes time for rods to reactivate when adjusting to darkness.

trichromatic theory (related to sensing color)

The human eye can perceive three colors of light: red, green, and blue. The brain interprets the relative strengths of the signals from the three types of cones in the retina as a visible color. When all three cones are stimulated equally, the brain perceives white.

opponent process theory (related to sensing color)

color perception is based on opposing pairs of colors, specifically ganglion cells associated with these three pairs: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white, meaning that the visual system processes color information by comparing these opposing pairs, and can only detect one color from each pair at a time, explaining phenomena like afterimages where you see the complementary color after staring at a bright hue for a period of time.

cones

are responsible for color vision are clairty and is located in the retina

blue cones

help you see blue

green cones

helps you see green

amplitudes of light

higher amplitudes show brighter colors while shorter show duller colors

after images

ganglion cells in the retina are activated while others are not. The ganglion cells involved in this opponent process are red/green, blue/yellow/ and black/white.

ganglion cells

related to the opponent-process theory of color perception

color vision deficiency

color blindness

dichromatism

refers to when only two different cone types are available to perceive color. In this case, people are unable to see the colors related to the missing cone.

monochromatism

a rare, inherited condition that causes people to see colors as shades of gray.

prosopagnosia

symtom that makes it hard to recongize faces

blindsight

a neurological condition that allows people with damage to their visual cortex to respond to visual stimuli in their blind field without being consciously aware of them.

auditory sensory system

hearing

wavelength of sound waves

Humans perceive longer wavelenths sound waves as having a lower pitch and higher wavelength soundwaves as having a higher pitch.

amplitude of sound waves

Humans perceive larger amplitude sound waves as being louder and smaller amplitude sound waves as being quieter.

place theory

a theory in psychology that explains how humans perceive pitch by suggesting that different parts of the cochlea detect different sound frequencies:

volley theory

explains how the auditory system perceives mid-range sound frequencies by having groups of neurons fire in rapid succession, slightly out of phase with each other, effectively creating of neural signals that represent the sound frequency, allowing for the encoding of higher frequencies than a single neuron could manage alone.

sound localization

the ability to determine the location of a sound source based on the sound's intensity, timing, and other

sensorineural hearing loss (sensorineural deafness)

a type of hearing loss that occurs when there's damage to the inner ear, the auditory nerve, or the brain.

chemical sensory system

smelling and tasting

Pheromones

are chemical substances that are released by an individual into the environment to affect the behavior or physiology of other members of the same species. chemical substances that trigger behavioral or physiological responses in members of the same species:

Gustation

refers to the sense of taste, specifically the ability to perceive different flavors through taste buds on the tongue. It plays a crucial role in the enjoyment of food and drink, and it can influence appetite and dietary choices.

umami

a savory, meaty taste that is one of the five basic tastes, along with sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.

oleogustus

the taste of fat

taste receptors

proteins that detect taste stimuli and are the first step in the process of sensing and discriminating what we eat. aka taste buds

super tasters

someone that has a better sense of aste then the average person ; genetic

medium tasters

people who have the ability to sense different falvors; 50% of people are medium tasters

non tasters

people with a decreased ability to taste food; 25% of people are non tasters. They find most food to be bland and unexciting

sensory interaction b/w smell and taste

The chemical senses interact to create the sensation of taste. Without the sense of smell, taste sensations are either muted or not experienced.

touch sensory system

sense of touch

warm and cold receptors

specialized sensory neurons in the skin called thermoreceptors that detect changes in temperature, specifically signaling when the skin is exposed to warmth (warm receptors) or coolness (cold receptors), allowing us to perceive different temperature sensations; they are a key part of our sense of touch and our body's ability to regulate temperature.

pain sensory system

a part of the somatosensory system, which is responsible for providing information about the body and the external world to the brain. The pain sensory system is made up of nociceptors, which are sensory neurons that detect potentially damaging stimuli and send signals to the brain and spinal cord

The Gate Control Theory of Pain,

developed by Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall, explains how pain perception involves both physical and psychological factors. Pain signals travel through the spinal cord to the brain, where the substantia gelatinosa acts as a "gate" that can either allow or block these signals. This gate can be influenced by other sensory input (like rubbing an area), central nervous system signals, and emotional states; for example, negative emotions can widen the gate, increasing pain perception, while distraction or positive emotions can help close it.

phantom limb

feelings that a limb is still present after it has been amputated, and they are caused by the brain's attempt to rearrange sensory signals after an amputation.

balence

the sense of balance and body position that helps us move smoothly and maintain our equilibrium; located in the inner ear.

semicircular canals in ear (as related to balance)

(in ear) the sense of balance and body position that helps us move smoothly and maintain our equilibrium; located in the inner ear.

body movement

the ability to perceive body movement and position without visual aid. It's a mysterious sense that's largely unnoticed in daily activities, but is used whenever the body moves, such as when walking, running, dancing, or swimming. made up of sensory receptors in the musle joint s