UC Davis PSC 001 - Midterm 2

Automatic Processing

tasks that are so well learned that they require little attention

Controlled Processing

difficult or unfamiliar tasks that require much attention

Selective Attention

some stimuli demand attention (important information) and virtually shut off the ability to attend to anything else (irrelevant information)

Keeping Busy

there are activities in which we can "lose ourselves" and enter an altered state: religion, exercise, escapist behaviors

Flow (keeping busy)

total engagement in an act for its own sake, not focusing on a reward

Psychoactive Drugs

mind-altering substances that change the brain's neurochemistry

Stimulants

drugs that increase behavioral and mental activity and activate the sympathetic nervous system

Depressants

reduce behavioral and mental activity by depressing the central nervous system

Opioids

sometimes called narcotics, reduces pain

Hallucinogens

sometimes called psychedelics, produce alterations in cognition, mood, and perception

Paradoxical Sleep

REM sleep is called this because it is the most active stage of sleep with regard to brain activity (dreaming), but our bodies are actually paralyzed: beta waves are present

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Phobia

learned fear that is disproportionate to the real threat posed by an object or situation

Addiction and Classical Conditioning

stimuli associated with drugs (syringe, dispensary) become conditioned stimulus (CS): stimuli can therefore induce cravings

Operant Conditioning

a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future

Schedules of Reinforcement

continuous reinforcement: behavior is reinforced every time it occurs;

partial reinforcement: behavior is reinforced intermittently

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

through classical conditioning, we learn associations between two stimuli or events;

through operant conditioning, we learn to associate our behavior with good or bad consequences

Latent Learning

learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement or punishment

Modeling (observational learning)

imitating the behavior of others

Bandura's "Bobo doll" study

children who observed the aggressive model with the Bobo doll made far more aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups

Attention

the process of focusing awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring other stimuli

Phases of Memory

encoding: processing information so that it can be stored

storage: retention of encoded representations over time

retrieval: act of recalling or remembering stored information when needed

all together, these phases make up...

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term/ Working Memory

the part of your memory system that contains information you are consciously aware of before it is stored more permanently or forgotten

Long-term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

Explicit Memory

the system underlying conscious memories

episodic memory: memory for one's personal past experiences

semantic memory: memory for knowledge about the world

Implicit Memory

the system underlying unconscious memories

procedural/ motor memory: involves motor skills and behavioral habits

Prospective Memory

remembering to do something at some future time

Shallow Encoding

based on surface features (e.g., what something looks or sounds like)

Deep Encoding

based on semantic meaning (e.g., what something means)

Schemas

cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information; generalizations about concepts and categories

Association Networks

metaphor for how neurons are connected to make up mental representations

Encoding Specificity Principle

any stimulus encoded with an experience can trigger a memory of that experience

context-dependent memory: memory enhancement due to similarity between encoding and recall situations

state-dependent memory: memory enhancement due to similar internal states during encoding and recall

Proactive Interference

prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information

Retroactive Interference

new information inhibits the ability to remember prior information

Flashbulb Memories

vivid episodic memories for the circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing event

Memory Storage

memory is distributed throughout the brain rather than in a specific location; they're stored in multiple regions and linked through memory circuits; but specific regions of the brain are important for memory

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Consolidation

the process by which encoded information becomes stored in memory

Reconsolidation

neural processes involved when memories are recalled and then stored again for retrieval

Analogical Representations

correspond to and have some physical characteristics of actual objects or things around us

Symbolic Representations

abstract representations that do not correspond to physical features of objects or ideas

Scripts

schemas about sequences of events

direct behavior in specific situations

learned through experience and observation & shaped by culture

Deductive Reasoning

using general rules to draw conclusions about specific instances

Inductive Reasoning

taking a specific instance and generalizing it to other instances to draw a conclusion

Heuristics

mental shortcuts used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions

Crystallized Intelligence

factual knowledge about the world, word meanings, arithmetic, etc.

Fluid Intelligence

the ability to think on the spot by drawing inferences and understanding relations between concepts not previously encountered

IQ (intelligence quotient)

the overall quantitative measures of a child's intelligence relative to that of other children of same age

mental age/ chronological age * 100

Distribution of IQ Scores

IQ tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of about 15 or 16, depending on the test

Complexity of Intelligence

the development of intelligence is embedded within context and genetics (polygenetic/ epigenetic studies)

Stereotype Threat

apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's group

Primary Emotions

innate, evolved, and universal

anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness

Secondary Emotions

blends of basic emotions

remorse, guilt/ shame, jealousy, embarrassment, anticipation

Valence

how unpleasant or pleasant

Activation

how arousing

Amygdala

processes emotional significance of stimuli & generates immediate reactions; critical for emotional learning

Prefrontal Cortex

important for experiencing, expressing and regulating emotions

James-Lange Theory

interpretation of physical changes leads to emotion experience

stimulus→arousal→emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

mind & body experience emotions independently

stimulus→arousal

↳emotion

Two-Factor Theory

we label emotions based on how we interpret the situation

stimulus→arousal→appraisal→emotion

Excitation Transfer

residual arousal caused by one event is transferred to a new stimulus

Non-verbal Expression of Emotion

our faces communicate our emotions to others; specific facial muscles in expressions can identify emotions

tone of voice; body position, gestures

Display Rules

rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable to given situations

Emotion Regulation Strategies

rumination: "Keep thinking about it!"

suppression: "Don't feel it!"

distraction: "Keep your mind busy!"

humor: "Laugh about it!"

Motivations

needs: a state of biological or social deficiency

homeostasis: tendency for bodily functions to maintain equilibrium

drive: psychological state that motivates an organism to satisfy need via arousal

Freud's Pleasure Principle

people seek pleasure and avoid pain

Self-regulation

process by which people change their behavior to attain personal goals

Delayed Gratification

postponing immediate gratification for long-term goals

Hot Cognition

thoughts that focus on the rewarding aspect of the object (associated with amygdala)

Cold Cognition

thoughts that focus on the conceptual or symbolic meanings of the object (associated with prefrontal cortex)