Unit 0- Science Practices

Humanist Perspective

Believes individuals choose their behaviors based on physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focuses on how the unconscious mind influences thoughts and actions.

Biopsychology Perspective

Explains human thought and behavior through biological processes.

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection.

Cognitive Perspective

Looks at how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events.

Social-Cultural Perspective

Studies how thoughts and behaviors differ across cultures.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Acknowledges that behavior results from biological, psychological, and social factors.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe one knew an outcome after it has occurred.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to focus on information that supports one's preexisting beliefs.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one’s knowledge or abilities.

Quantitative Research

Research that uses numerical measures to analyze data.

Qualitative Research

Research that uses descriptive, non-numeric data to identify themes.

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation predicting a relationship between two variables.

Independent Variable

The variable that is changed to test its effects on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Falsifiable

A hypothesis must be able to be tested and potentially disproven.

Operational Definition

Describes how a variable will be measured in a study.

Replicated

Research is reliable when it can be repeated with the same results.

Sample

A group of participants selected from a population for research.

Population

The entire group of individuals from which a sample is drawn.

Random Sampling

Each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sampling

Collecting data from participants who are easily accessible.

Stratified Sampling

Ensures the sample represents the population based on certain criteria.

Random Assignment

Participants have an equal chance of being placed into different groups.

Experimenter Bias

The tendency for researchers to influence the outcome of a study.

Double-Blind Study

Neither the participants nor the researchers know which group is receiving treatment.

Single-Blind Study

Participants do not know which group they are assigned to. Meaning, the participants are completely unaware whether they will receive a new, experimental drug or be given a placebo.

Subject Bias

Participants may behave differently because they know they are being studied.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to respond in a way that is socially acceptable.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the treatment in an experiment.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison.

Placebo Method

Using an inert substance to separate psychological effects from physiological effects.

Counterbalancing

Participants are assigned to different orders of conditions to avoid order effects. Order effects meaning that the order in which information is presented to research participants influences their responses

Order Effects

When the order of conditions affects participants’ performance.

Correlational Method

A method that expresses the relationship between two variables without inferring cause and effect.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where the presence of one variable indicates the presence of another.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where the presence of one variable indicates the absence of another.

Survey Method

A method that involves collecting data through surveys, often using Likert scales.

Likert Scale

A scale for measuring attitudes or opinions, ranging from strong disagreement to strong agreement.

Directionality Problem

The issue of not knowing which variable is the cause in a correlation.

Spurious Correlation

A false correlation caused by a third variable.

Confounding Variables

Variables that can affect the results of a study but are not controlled.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing participants in their natural environment without intervention.

Qualitative Data

Data that is descriptive and non-numeric.

Structured Interview

An interview with a set list of questions asked in a fixed order.

Semi-Structured Interview

An interview with a core set of questions that allows for flexibility.

Unstructured Interview

An open-ended interview allowing for conversational flexibility.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of a single individual or a small group.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistics that summarize the center of a data distribution.

Mean

The average score calculated by dividing the sum of all scores by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score when a data set is ordered.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Outliers

Extreme values in a data set that can skew results.

Positively Skewed Distribution

A distribution with more low scores, where the mean is higher than the median.

Negatively Skewed Distribution

A distribution with more high scores, where the mean is lower than the median.

Variance

The average of the squared differences from the mean. It is a way to quantify how much values in a data set differ from the mean

Standard Deviation

The average distance of each score from the mean.

Z-Score

A measure indicating how many standard deviations a score is from the mean. A positive ______ indicates that the value lies above the mean, while a negative ______ indicates that the value lies below the mean.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve representing a normal distribution of data.

Percentile

Indicates the percentage of scores below a specific score.

Correlation

A statistical measure describing the relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistic indicating the strength and direction of a correlation.

Strong Correlation

A correlation close to -1 or +1, indicating a strong relationship.

Weak Correlation

A correlation closer to 0, indicating a weak relationship.

Scatterplot

A graph that plots pairs of values representing two variables.

Line of Best Fit (Regression Line)

A line on a scatterplot that shows the overall trend.

Inferential Statistics

Statistics used to make generalizations about a population from a sample.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that describe and summarize data features.

Sampling Error

The difference between sample results and the true population characteristics.

Representative Sample

A sample accurately reflecting the characteristics of the population.

Sampling

The process of selecting individuals from a larger population.

p-Value

The probability that observed differences are due to chance.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that results are not due to chance, typically if p-value < 0.05.

Practical Significance

The real-world relevance of a result, regardless of its statistical significance.

Effect Size

A measure of the strength or magnitude of an effect.

Replication Crisis

A situation in science where studies fail to replicate, raising doubts about results.

Meta-Analysis

A method combining results from multiple studies to estimate overall effects.

Peer Review

The evaluation of research by experts before publication.

Animal Research Ethical Guidelines

Guidelines ensuring humane treatment and clear scientific purpose in animal research. These could include a clear scientific purpose, the animals studied must be best suited, the animals must be cared for in a humane way, researchers must acquire animal subjects legally, and researchers must design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering.

Human Research Ethical Guidelines

Standards ensuring ethical treatment and consent in human research. These could include no coercion (voluntary), informed consent, informed assent (for kids), minimize risk, protect from harm, and debriefing.