PSY110 FINAL

learning

acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience, which result in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner

explicit

declarative

implicit

procedural

associations

2 pieces of info are linked together

non-associative learning

an organism's behavior changes after repeated exposure to a single stimulus, without associating it with rewards or punishments

habituation

an organism decreases its response to a repeated, irrelevant stimulus over time

sensitization

an organism's response to a repeated, often strong or painful, stimulus intensifies over time

associative learning (behaviorism)

organisms learn to connect stimuli or behaviors, anticipating events based on experience

classical conditioning

a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally triggers a reflex, eventually causing the neutral stimulus to elicit a learned, automatic conditioned response on its own

operant learning

a behavioral theory developed by B.F. Skinner where voluntary behaviors are modified by their consequences—reinforcement (strengthening) or punishment (weakening)

neutral stimuli

no response

unconditioned stimulus

triggers response naturally, no conditioning

conditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus that was conditioned to generate reaction

behaviorism

belief that behavior is much more important than mental life as a foundation for psychological science

acquisition

initial stage of learning/conditioning

second-order conditioning

turning a NS into a CS by associating it w/ another CS

extinction

will eventually stop have a reaction due to diminishing CR

spontaneous recovery

return of CR despite lack of further conditioningg

generalization

tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli

discrimination

learned ability to only respond to a specific stimuli, preventing generalization

limits of classical conditioning

1. cannot teach new behaviors

2. doesn’t bypass cognition

3. influences on evolution/biology

role of biology

easier to learn associations that make sense for survival

edward thorndike

WHO - instrumental behaviors - law of effect

instrumental behaviors

organisms behave instrumentally to achieve goals

law of effect

if a good thing happens, one is more likely to do it

B.F. Skinner

WHO - operant chamber

positive

adding stimulus

negative

removal

mutual reinforcement

a behavioral process where two individuals interact, and both are simultaneously rewarded for their actions, strengthening both behaviors

avoid danger

when is punishment effective

continuous reinforcement

giving reward after a target every time

partial reinforcement

rewards part of the time

continuous reinforcement

highly susceptible to extinction

partial reinforment

takes longer - persists longer

fixed interval reinforcement

the first response is rewarded only after a set, consistent amount of time has passed

variable interval reinforcement

rewards are provided after an unpredictable, varying amount of time has passed

fixed ratio reinforcement

response is rewarded only after a specific, unchanging number of responses

variable ratio reinforcement

rewards are delivered after an unpredictable number of responses

limits of operant conditioning

not all behaviors are explained through contingent reward and punishment

intrinsic motivation

desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

doing a behavior to receive rewards from others

classical conditioning

• respondent behaviors

• passive

• acquisition: NS repeatedly precedes the US & eventually triggers CR

• order: NS precedes the UCS

• timing: immediate

operant conditioning

• voluntary behaviors

• active

• acquisition: consequence repeatedly follows behavior

• timing: delays work, delay gratification, vary schedule of reinforcement after acquisition

cognitive learning

social interaction

latent learning

gained from experience, but not apparent until rewards are given

observational learning

a process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and behaviors by watching others

Social Learning Theory: Bandura

• can learn via observation

• mental states are important for learning

• learning does not necessarily result in a change in behavior

automatic processing

• implicit memories

• not conscious

• expressed

  • procedural memories

  • repetition priming

effortful processing

• explicit

• conscious

sensory memory

the earliest, ultra-short-term stage of memory that briefly retains high-fidelity sensory impressions (sights, sounds, touches, tastes, smells) immediately after a stimulus ends, typically lasting from a fraction of a second to a few seconds

iconic sensory memory

a high-capacity, ultra-short-term visual buffer that stores a precise "snapshot" of sensory information for less than one second (roughly 250–500 milliseconds) before it is processed or discarded

echoic sensory memory

a component of sensory memory that stores fleeting auditory information for 2–3 seconds after a sound stimulus ends

short-term (working) memory

the cognitive system for temporarily holding, processing, and manipulating limited information needed for immediate tasks

long-term memory

the cognitive system responsible for storing, managing, and retrieving information over long periods, ranging from days to a lifetime

rehearsal

the cognitive process of repeating or reviewing information to retain it in memory, spanning from short-term maintenance to long-term storage

chunking

turning large info into smaller info

hierarchies

breaking info down into categories

mnemonic devices

a memory-enhancing technique or tool designed to help encode and recall information more easily by associating new data with, or organizing it into, familiar patterns, imagery, or structures

memory palace

a cognitive mnemonic technique that enhances memory by associating information with specific locations in a familiar, visualized physical space, such as a home

self-reference effect

a memory phenomenon where individuals demonstrate superior recall for information that is personally relevant or related to their own experiences and self-concept

spacing effect

a cognitive psychology phenomenon where information is better remembered when study sessions are distributed over time (spaced) rather than crammed together (massed)

AROMAS

Attention, Rehearsal, Organization, Meaning, Associations, Sleep

episodic memory

a type of long-term, explicit memory focused on personal experiences, allowing individuals to mentally "travel back" to recall specific events, emotions, and contextual details

semantic memory

a type of long-term, explicit (declarative) memory responsible for storing general world knowledge, facts, concepts, and word meanings independent of personal experience

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

a persistent, long-lasting strengthening of synapses (connections) between neurons, resulting from high-frequency stimulation

implicit

• cerebellum

• basal ganglia

explicit

• hippocampus

• frontal lobes

permastore

very long term

priming

activation of particular associations in our memory, often unconscious

constructive memory

the psychological process where the brain actively reconstructs past events using stored knowledge, beliefs, and expectations rather than recalling exact recordings

unconscious transference

a cognitive memory error where a person misidentifies a familiar, innocent individual as the perpetrator of a crime or the source of a memory, often due to mistaken familiarity

context-dependent memory

the improved recall of information when the environment or context during retrieval matches the context present during encoding

state-dependent memory

a psychological phenomenon where information is more easily recalled when an individual is in the same internal physical or mental state (such as mood, consciousness, or physiological condition) during retrieval as they were during the initial encoding phase

mood-congruent memory

a psychological phenomenon where a person’s current emotional state (mood) dictates the ease with which they recall memories that match that same emotion

flashbulb memories

a highly vivid, detailed, and enduring memory of the specific circumstances surrounding the moment a person learns of a surprising, emotionally charged, or significant event

3 sins of forgetting (omission)

1. transcience

2. absentmindedness

3. blocking

3 sins of misremembering (commission)

1. misattribution

2. suggestibility

3. bias

transcience

info becomes less accessible over time

interference theory

forgetting occurs in long-term memory because similar memories compete, causing retrieval disruption rather than simple decay

absentmindedness

lapse of attention that results of forgetting

blocking

info is present, but temporarily not accessible

retrograde amnesia

interrupts storage of memories of events just before the trauma

anterograde amnesia

difficulty remembering new info after the trauma

misattribution

memories are attributed to wrong source

suggestibility

memory distorted due to suggestions planted by others

egocentric bias

a cognitive tendency to over-rely on one's own perspective, memories, and beliefs when interpreting events or evaluating situations

consistency bias

a cognitive bias where individuals incorrectly remember their past attitudes, behaviors, or beliefs as being more similar to their current ones than they actually were

cognitive dissonance

the mental discomfort or psychological stress experienced when a person holds 2 or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes, or when their behavior conflicts with their beliefs

persistence

unwanted memories we cannot forget

semantic distinctiveness

the degree of semantic variability or uniqueness of the contexts in which a word appears

neurons

the fundamental cell of the nervous system, acting as a specialized messenger that transmits, receives, and processes information throughout the body and brain using electrical and chemical signals.

dendrites

a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body

axon

a long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses—known as action potentials—away from the cell body (soma) to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

axon terminal

facilitate the conversion of electrical signals into chemical messages across the synapse

reuptake

the process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a neural impulse across the synapse

sensory neurons

specialized nerve cells responsible for converting external stimuli—such as light, sound, touch, and pain—into electrical impulses. They transmit this information from sensory receptors throughout the body to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) for processing

motor neurons

specialized nerve cells that transmit output signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, initiating voluntary and involuntary movements. As the final path for nervous system commands, they control muscle contraction, enabling all physical actions and behaviors

acetycholine

excitatory neurotransmitter found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, essential for muscle contraction, voluntary movement, and cognitive functions like memory, learning, and attention

interneurons

specialized neurons located entirely within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) that act as intermediaries, connecting sensory neurons to motor neurons

automatic behavior

actions, thoughts, or responses performed without conscious intention, awareness, or control