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Background of the Korean War.
- Between 1910 and 1945, Korea was controlled by Japan.
- In 1945, Japanese troops based in Korea surrendered to the Soviet Russians in the north of the country and to the Americans in the south.
- The dividing line between the Soviet and American zones was set at the 38th Parallel.
- In 1948, elections were held in the south under UN supervision. The Republic of Korea was set up under the presidency of Syngman Rhee, with its capital and centre of government in Seoul.
- In the same year, the Soviets established the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea under the leadership of Kim Il-Sung with its capital and centre of government at Pyongyang.
- Both the communist North Korean and anti-communist South Korean governments claimed to be the legitimate government of the whole of Korea.
- As relations between the two worsened however, unification seemed less likely. In 1948, separate independent states were setup in the North and the South.
Why did North Korea invade South Korea in June 1950?
In June 1950, Kim Il Sung invaded the South. He had a good reason to presume the invasion would be successful.
- Kim had the support of Stalin (Soviets) and Mao (Chinese).
- North Korea’s armed forces, supplied with tanks, heavy artillery and planes by the USSR were much stronger than those of South Korea.
- Kim thought that an American response was unlikely now that China was communist and USSR had an atom bomb (since 1949)
- Leading American politicians had made public statements that defending Korea was not a priority, as well as the distance of Korea from USA made it likely.
Why did the US respond to the invasion?
- They were now committed to the policy of containment.
- They were closely associated with the establishment of the Republic of Korea
- Communism was seen as being directed by Moscow, so this was not a faraway conflict but a Soviet plot.
- Linked to the Domino Theory, the total fall of Korea would lead to the fall of other US-backed nations (Taiwan and Japan). If they were to fall it would cause a shift in the power balance between the communist and capitalist world.
How did the UN get involved?
On the same day North Korea invaded South Korea, the Security Council met and the resolution was passed on the 25th of June due to the absence of the USSR representative. Truman pressured the UN to condemn the actions of NK and call on them to withdraw their troops. Therefore, even though it was a US-led operation, the backing of the UN meant that the anti-communist forces were a coalition of 15 countries.
The USSR was boycotting the UN due to Communist China not being allowed to join and therefore was not able to use its veto power during the meeting.
Phase 1 of the Korean War: June to September 1950
NK troops invade SK, capturing the capital, Seoul. SK and UN troops were confined to territory around Pusan in the south-east of the peninsula, the Pusan perimeter.
Phase 2 of the Korean War: September to October 1950
The UN and American marines now launched a two-pronged counter-attack: UN forces broke through the perimeter and headed northward; MacArthur led a daring seaborne attack on the west coast at Inchon, some 200 miles behind the communist lines. Seoul was relieved and NK troops were driven back across the 38th Parallel. At this point the original UN mission had been accomplished.
Phase 3 of the Korean War: October to November 1950
Despite warnings from China’s leader Mao Tse-tung, UN forces continued pressing northwards across the 38th Parallel, in pursuit of the long-standing UN objective of achieving “a unified, independent and democratic government” for the whole of Korea (getting rid of communism entirely). With minimal NK resistance, progress was swift. Pyongyang, the NK capital was captured on the 19th of October and just over a month later some American units reached the Yalu River on the border with China.
Phase 4 of the Korean War: November 1950 to January 1951
Fearing an invasion of their territory, China send 200,000 soldiers to cross the border. They had soldiers that were strongly committed to Communism and had modern tanks and planes supplied by the USSR. The Chinese were also more accustomed to the fighting conditions. The UN forces were driven southwards and across the 38th Parallel. Seoul was captured by the communists in earlier 1951.
Phase 5 of the Korean War: January to July 1951
UN counter-attacks and forces the Chinese and NKs back to the 38th Parallel. Seoul changed hands for the last time when UN forces retook it in March. General MacArthur and Truman had fallen out by this point as well. MacArthur wanted to carry on the war. He was ready to invade China and even use nuclear weapons if necessary. Truman felt that a war with China was too risky and was content with saving SK. However, in March 1951, MacArthur went against orders and threatened an attack on the Chinese. In April he was sacked by President Truman.
Phase 6 of the Korean War: July 1951 to July 1953.
The fighting reached a stalemate at the 38th Parallel. Peace talks between NK and SK began although bitter fighting continued for two years. The casualties on all sides were immense. An armistice was finally signed in July 1953 following the death of Stalin and the election of President Eisenhower. The border between NK and SK was the same as it had been in the beginning of 1950.
How was the Korean War a success for the US?
- Achieved the initial short-term aim of protecting SK from Communism and halting the invasion - successful ‘containment’
- Showed the world the US was willing to confront communism by force - arguably an initial trigger to the NK action and would deter similar actions by communists elsewhere.
How was the Korean War a failure for the US?
- US failed to achieve later expanded aims of re-uniting Korea under democratic, non-communist rule due to Chinese intervention.
- Conflict exposed major tensions between US leaders of foreign policy and MacArthur still received a heroic welcome when he returned.
Background of Cuba and the USA
- After the Treaty of Paris in 1898, Cuba gained independence from Spain. However, after liberating Cuba, the USA demanded influence.
- Cuba had to sell raw materials to the US for low prices and the US ensured that Cuba imported US-made products. By 1914, two-thirds of all Cuban imports were from the USA.
- The railway industry, telephone system and tobacco plantations were all controlled by the USA.
- 2/3s of farming land was under US control.
- Guantanamo Bay was transformed into a US Navy base.
- No government would be elected unless they were favourable to the US. In return, the government ministers in Cuba received payments from American businessmen.
- Due to its proximity to the US, Cuba became a popular American tourist destination. It was a place that allowed vices the US did not - such as drinking, gambling and prostitution.
- The relaxed government meant the American Mafia controlled much of the gambling, horse racing and hotels of Cuba
How did tensions develop between Cuba and the USA?
In 1959, Cuba underwent a revolution. President Batista, the US-backed leader of Cuba, was overthrown by Fidel Castro. Castro promised to restore power in Cuba to its people and to end American corruption in the country. This is not Soviet-linked.
Soon after taking over, he began to nationalise foreign-owned companies and redistributing agricultural land to peasants.
How did the US respond to Cuban revolution?
They imposed economic sanctions, which was a huge blow considering they were their largest trading partner. In response to this, Castro signs a trade agreement of $100 million with USSR leader Krushchev.
What happened on the 17th March 1960?
Eisenhower approved a plan at the meeting of the US National Security Council. America had decided to remove Castro. A budget of $13 million was agreed and plans were drawn up.
What happened during the Bay of Pigs invasion?
Kennedy supplied anti-Castro Cuban exiles with arms and equipment for an invasion of Cuba. They were also trained by the CIA. The exiles landed on the Bay of Pigs. American bombers also attacked the Cuban airfields. In three days, they were defeated by Cuban troops and tanks. All the exiles were captured or killed by Castro. Kennedy decided against sending more air support for the exiles.
How did the US fail in the Bay of Pigs?
- Despite governments efforts to keep the invasion plans covert, it became common knowledge among the Cuban exiles in Miami. Through Cuban intelligence, Castro learned of the guerilla training camps in Guatemala and was prepared for an attack.
- The air strikes missed many of their targets. As news broke of the attack, photographs of the repainted American planes became public and revealed American support for the invasion. The Cuban air force was left intact.
- When the invasion forces landed on the beaches along the Bay of Pigs, they immediately came under heavy fire. Some escaped into the sea, others were captured and killed. Very few of the Cuban population joined the invaders.
- Castro ordered roughly 20,000 to advance towards the beach and the Cuban air force controlled the skies. Without American air support and with such a small number of troops, the invasion failed.
What happened after the Bay of Pigs invasion?
The captured troops were paraded by Castro and used as propaganda. His popularity increased as he repelled an American invasion. Eventually, after 20 months in prison, the US negotiated a deal to exchange the prisoners for goods scarce in Cuba, with Castro receiving baby food and medicine worth $53 million.
What were the consequences of the Bay of Pigs invasion?
- As the youngest ever president of the USA, Kennedy’s judgement and experience already had question marks. The failure hurt his image even more. Additionally, the half-hearted invasion attempt made Krushchev and Castro believe he was weak and easy to push around.
- The USSR had already been secretly supplying Cuba with weapons, but the invasion alarmed Cuba. The USSR made Cuba the best-equipped army in Latin America with missiles, tanks, jet bombers etc.
Why were there nuclear missiles in Cuba?
- The revolution in Cuba was an unexpected gift for the USSR to have a communist nation right at the USA’s doorstep - similarly, the US would never accept the situation and would always try to remove Castro from power, therefore drastic action was necessary to preserve the government.
- The US had a much greater number of long-range ICBMs and also had missiles placed in Europe (including missiles in Turkey, right at the USSR border) which could strike the USSR. By placing missiles in Cuba, this evened the gap and made it harder for the US to bargain with the USSR.
- Krushchev wanted to extract some concessions from the US and was giving himself a bargaining chip to use, which was arguably encouraged further by Kennedy’s indecision and weakness during the Bay of Pigs invasion - Krushchev felt he could push him.
How did Kennedy respond to the blockade?
Kennedy was determined to not back down, due to his already weakened international standing and he believed the missiles had to be removed.
However, an invasion or air strikes on Cuba would most likely lead to a war with the USSR.
He settled on a blockade of the island that would block any Soviet ships bringing weapons on the island as they would be searched by the US Navy on the way.
What was the impact of the blockade?
The main advantage of the blockade was that it would stop the Soviets from bringing further equipment to Cuba and it would show a firm stance but without actually declaring war.
It would force Krushchev to make the next move and test his resolve and see if he would actually take the step to beginning a war. The USSR had the option of ignoring the blockade and forcing their way through, which would be an act of war.
However, this could still cause war, and this did not solve the problem of the missiles already on Cuba.
The steps of the crisis: 23rd Oct to 26th Oct 1962
23rd Oct: Krushchev sends a letter to Kennedy saying he would not observe the blockade and US draws up plans and mobilises soldiers for an invasion of Cuba.
24th Oct: Soviet ships continue to approach the blockade zone, however, at last minute, they turn around and observe the blockade.
25th Oct: new photos show missile base building up rapidly and US raises DEFCON level to 2 - one step before all-out nuclear war.
26th Oct: Krushchev sends a letter to Kennedy promising to remove missiles is US promised not to invade Cuba. Crisis appears to be de-escalating.
The steps of the crisis: 27th and 28th Oct 1962
27th Oct: Krushchev sends a second letter to Kennedy, this time more threatening than the first and also revising his demands, he wants all US missiles in Turkey removed.
Later that same day, an American U2 spy plane is shot down over Cuba and the pilot is killed. Kennedy is advised to immediately retaliate and launch an invasion of Cuba. However, he chooses to ignore the second letter and instead replies by accepting the first. He threatens to invade if the Soviets do not withdraw.
28th Oct: Krushchev agrees to the terms and begins to dismantle and return the missiles to the USSR, ending the crisis.
Outcomes of the Cuban Missile Crisis for USA
- Huge victory for USA and Kennedy and saw his reputation and standing massively improved. He made Krushchev back down and publicly won the crisis by achieving missile removal and stood up to hardliners within the government and did thing “his own way”.
- However, in private, the results of the blockade were more even as USA removed the missiles in Turkey as part of their agreement.
- This would be a huge challenge for containment as Cuba would become the main promoter of communist revolutions across Latin America for decades.
Outcomes of the Cuban Missile Crisis for USSR
- Krushchev was able to portray himself as the protector of Cuba and keeping them safe in the long-term was hugely valuable as Cuba would be a useful base to spread communism in Latin America.
- Removal of Turkey missiles was a strategic win (though it could not be used for propaganda purposes as it was kept secret)
- This looked like public defeat and humiliation for USSR, they had clearly “backed down”, making them look “weaker”.
Background of the Vietnam War
Vietnam was a French colony, Indochina, before being occupied by the Japanese during WW2. The Japanese were resisted by a movement called the Viet Minh, led by a Communist called Ho Chi Minh. When Japan was defeated, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam independent but the French returned to re-establish control. The Viet Minh fought the French for independence over the next 9 years.
The US decided to financially back the French due to them fearing a Communist takeover, but they were eventually defeated by the Viet Minh at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.
Negotiations began afterwards and in July 1954, France signed the Geneva Peace Accord with the Viet Minh which temporarily divided Vietnam into two parts, the North and South. This would last until internationally supervised elections in 1956.
However, the US prevented these elections from taking place as they feared the Communists would win.
Who controlled North Vietnam?
NV was controlled by the communist Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh
Who controlled South Vietnam?
SV was controlled by the anti-Communist dictator Ngo Dinh Diem
What were the public’s thoughts on Ngo Dinh Diem?
His regime was unpopular with the Vietnamese people. He was a wealthy elite, a Catholic that hated Buddhism (the most common religion in Vietnam) and was very corrupt and harsh in his repression of opponents. The Americans knew Diem was a problematic leader but felt they had no choice but to back him.
How did the Vietnam war start?
The actions of the Diem government led to increased rebellion and armed struggle by groups against them. They intensified over the course of the next few years and by 1959 the North Vietnamese government began to fund and give military assistance to these rebels.
What was the Viet Cong?
The Viet Cong was the group of South Vietnamese rebels who opposed the government as well as Communists from the North under the orders of the Viet Minh.
The Viet Cong began waging a guerilla war against the South Vietnamese government in the hopes of overthrowing them and reuniting the country.
How did the Viet Cong fight?
The VC relied on guerilla warfare, constantly ambushing Southern government forces, officials and attacking government buildings. They dedicated significant resources to gaining the support of peasants, either willingly or by intimidating any reluctant peasants against opposing them.
The VC did not generally involve themselves in large pitched battles. They relied upon secrecy when it came to getting around and quickly disappearing after an attack so they were hard to target and capture.
Additionally, they used their links to the peasants to hide out in the countryside where it became hard to differentiate between ordinary peasants and members of the VC.
What was the Ho Chi Minh Trail?
The Ho Chi Minh Trail was an intricate system of roads and paths used by the Viet Cong to infiltrate troops and supplies into South Vietnam through the jungles of neighbouring Laos and Cambodia.
What part did the Ho Chi Minh trail play in Vietnam? [4 mark exam question]
- The North Vietnamese used the Ho Chi Minh Trail to supply the Viet Cong in South Vietnam.
- It was used to send guerillas, equipment, food and weapons to the Viet Cong.
- The supply lines of the trail were vital to the Viet Cong.
- The Trail had dummy lines and depots to confuse the American planes.
- The trail ensured the Viet Cong had replacements quickly when vehicles and other equipment were destroyed.
How did America get involved in Vietnam - Under Eisenhower
Eisenhower saw Vietnam as a crucial part of his domino theory.
- He involved the US in the war with the French. He had American planes supporting French troops during some operations.
- When the new governments were set up, he offered economic aid to the South and also military support.
- 900 military “advisors'“ were sent to the South to help deal with uprisings that had occurred.
How did America get involved in Vietnam - Under Kennedy
Kennedy continues where Eisenhower left off.
- He increased funding for the Southern government and also increased the number of military “advisors”
- 12,000 US troops were in Vietnam by the end of 1962 and the Americans had supplied the south with 300 helicopters.
What was the Strategic Hamlet Program?
Introduced in 1962, the US wanted to limit the influence of the Vietcong on the peasants in the south. Peasants were moved to new villages built in area controlled by the South Vietnamese army. This was meant to ensure that peasants could not be influenced by the Vietcong and to keep control of the peasant population.
Why didn’t the Strategic Hamlet Program work?
- The peasants did not want to move therefore the SV army often had to force them.
- The peasants were angry at having to travel longer distances to reach their rice fields and simply moved back.
- Some were upset for religious reasons as they believed that it was important to live where their ancestors were buried.
- The membership of the National Liberation Front (Vietcong) had grown to over 17,000. It was estimated that the NLF controlled 20% of villages in the south.
What was happening to Diem’s regime during this time?
Diem was still as unpopular as ever. On 11th June 1963, a monk set himself on fire in protest at the SV government, while nuns and monks gave out leaflets calling for Diem’s government to show “charity and compassion” to all religions. The government’s response to this was to arrest thousands of Buddhist monks.
At the beginning of November 1963, Diem was overthrown by a military coup and killed. The weak SV government was now in total chaos.
How did America get involved in Vietnam - Under Johnson
After Kennedy’s assassination in 1963, his vice-president, Lyndon Johnson replaced him.
Johnson was an even greater supporter of the war in Vietnam and believed a full scale war would be needed to halt the spread of Communism.
Johnson was given the excuse to start a war with the Gulf of Tonkin incident, which led to Congress giving permission for Johnson to fully escalate the war in Vietnam.
What was the Gulf of Tonkin incident?
In August 1964, two American warships were attacked by North Vietnamese gunboats while they were in international waters. This incident gave Johnson the excuse to escalate the war in Vietnam.
What were the two ways that Johnson escalated the war in Vietnam?
- He increased the number of ground troops in Vietnam to fight the VC.
- Operation Rolling Thunder
How did he increase the number of ground troops?
The government instituted a “draft” system whereby young men were chosen randomly and called up to fight for the army as and when needed. By 1968, over 500,000 US troops were stationed in Vietnam.
What was Operation Rolling Thunder?
The US began an enormous bombing campaign against the North Vietnamese to put pressure on them to come to the negotiating table and halt their backing for the VC. It consisted of the huge bombing of Northern cities, factories, bases and the Ho Chi Minh Trail. It also later started to include the SV, Laos, Cambodia and civilian targets that could be VC strongholds.
What were the effects of Operation Rolling Thunder?
- It did disrupt supply routes and forced Ho Chi Minh to negotiate in 1972.
- However, it never stopped the VC from achieving their objectives and never blocked their vital Ho Chi Minh trail.
- US lost 14,000 aircraft as a result
- US lost a lot of popularity as well
What were the guerilla tactics of the VC?
- The troops had no base or HQ
- They worked in small independent bands
- They didn’t engage in open warfare
- Retreated when the enemy attacked and attacked when the enemy retreated
- They used ambushes and booby traps
What were the effects of the guerilla tactics on US troops?
- It wore down their morale
- Exhausted their nerves
- Frustrated them
- Negates their numbers and technology
- Inflicted a steady stream of US casualties
How did the Vietnamese people treat the Vietcong and why?
- Ho Chi Minh instructed the VC to treat the SV peasants well - they even helped them in their fields
- VC understood the culture and language of the peasants
- However, the VC also used terror against SV “collaborators” - they killed 27,000
- The combination of aid and fear meant that SV supported the Vietcong - they helped them hide and store weapons and supplies.
How did the Vietnamese people treat the Americans and why?
- The US troops had a racist attitude to the Vietnamese and used racial slurs to refer to them
- They were ignorant of the language and culture, which offended the Vietnamese
- Guerilla tactics made them suspicious of all the Vietnamese, which made them brutal.
- US tactics of air bombing, chemical weapons, search and destroy all harmed civilians
- US was associated, in the peasant’s mind with the SV government - had a bad human rights record
What was the US’s ’Search and Destroy’ tactic?
- The US set up army bases in the SV countryside
- From these, they went out in Huey helicopter gunships on ‘search and destroy’ missions
- They would arrive at a village and destroy any VC, but often intelligence was wrong and innocent villages were targeted
What was the effect of ‘Search and Destroy’
- Civilian casualties were very high - 6 civilians for every VC troop
- Easy for the VC to set up traps
- Made the US very unpopular in SV and across the world
What was Agent Orange?
- Agent Orange was a US chemical weapon based on the poison dioxin.
- Sprayed on the jungle as defoliant - killed plant matter to make finding VC troops easier
- 82 million litres were used
- Caused birth deformities, also poisoned people, caused deforestation and destroyed peasants’ food crops
What was Napalm?
Napalm is a US chemical weapon. It was a burning gel that also was used as a defoliant. Burned skin through to the bone.
How was the quality of the Vietcong troops?
- They had been fighting the French for 10 years and the Japanese before that - they were well trained and experienced
- VC fighters were on “home ground” and understood culture and language of SV peasants
- Most were volunteers and motivated by a strong ideology - they believed in Communism
- They were fighting for Vietnamese independence
How was the quality of American troops?
- They were very inexperienced - average age for a soldier was 19
- US troops fighting abroad in what was a very foreign country to them
- Most were conscripts - they were not rich or clever enough to avoid the ”draft”
- Little knowledge of why they were fighting
- Events such as My Lai Massacre and Peace Movement back home gave them the idea that their cause wasn’t supported - lowered morale.
What was the US public opinion of the Vietnam War?
- After 1968, the war became very unpopular amongst the public.
- A reason for this was because it was a media war - the first war to be seen in detail on television screens.
- People were horrified at the war - the torture, the executions, children being burned by Napalm and screaming.
- The anti-war movement became huge. Rallies and protests were held all over the country.
- In 1968-70, university students demonstrated across the USA. At one demonstration, the US National Guard killed 4 students.
- The “draft dodge“ also began - a movement to refuse to serve in Vietnam. Drafted civilians would burn their call up papers.
What was the Tet Offensive?
The Tet Offense, launched in January 1968, was a surprise attack by NV troops. They attacked nearly 30 American targets and dozens of cities in South Vietnam. Although none of the attacks were successful in capturing territory the battle was disastrous for the American war effort. American media coverage characterised the conflict as a defeat, and public support for the war plummeted as people were losing hope in the war ending any time soon.
Why was the Tet Offensive important?
- Proved to be a turning point in the war
- It changed the US public opinion on the war
- It shattered the official view that America was winning the war
- It raised questions about the amount of money being spent on the war - there were nearly 500,000 thousand US troops in Vietnam and $20 billion were being spent yearly, so why had the Vietcong been able to launch a major offensive that took the US troops by surprise?
What was the My Lai Massacre?
In March 1968, a US ‘Search and Destroy’ mission descended upon the village of My Lai and murdered all 400 civilians in the village, mostly women and children - the truth of the event was revealed by an army photographer who captured evidence of the events. The event shocked the American public and support for the war massively decreased.
How did America get involved in Vietnam - Under Nixon
The US public desperately wanted to see the end of the Vietnam war and Nixon sought to withdraw US from the war while still not admitting defeat and simply hand Vietnam to the Communists
What were the ways that Nixon withdrew US from Vietnam?
Improved relations between USSR and China - In 1969, the USSR and China fell out. It seemed possible that there would even be a war between the two countries. As a result, they both improved relations with the USA.
Peace negotiations with NV - From early 1969, Kissinger had regular meetings with chief Vietnamese peace negotiator, Le Duc Tho
‘Vietnamisation’ - Nixon began handing responsibility to for the war to SV and began withdrawing troops. Between April 1969 and the end of 1971, almost 400,000 troops had been withdrawn.
Increased bombing - Nixon began increasing bombing campaigns against NV to put pressure on the North to agree to a peace deal.
What year did the US withdraw all troops from Vietnam?
1973
What happened after the US’s withdrawal?
- The Vietcong and South Vietnam started fighting months after US’s withdrawal
- Without US backing, the South was unable to repel the Communists and was defeated by them by 1975
- The Communists therefore won and would unify Vietnam under their rule
How did the media coverage of the Vietnam War affect the outcome of the conflict?
- Initially it was positive, but as it became clear the war was a disaster, the US media turned on the government
- Media attacked the war on two fronts, arguing the US was losing and debunking government claims and also reporting the atrocities the soldiers committed
- The war was the first time the public was getting close to an uncensored account of what was happening
- The public could not support what they were seeing
How did the anti-war protests affect the outcome of the Vietnam War?
- Whilst many continued to support the government, the anti-war movement was staunchly opposed to the war and US population became highly polarised and divided, especially due to the actions of some protesters such as burning American flags
- Over 700,000 people attended a protest in Washington in 1969
- The protests and social division was putting a lot of strain on the government and put great pressure on them to end the war
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