AP Psychology: Development

Stability and Change

The idea that some traits remain consistent over time while others develop or transform

Nature vs. Nuture

The debate over how much genetics vs. environment and experience shape development

Continuous development

Idea that development occurs gradually and smoothly over time

Discontinuous development

Idea that development occurs in distinct stages with abrupt changes.

Longitudinal study

Research that follows the same individuals over a long period of time.

Cross-sectional study

Research that compares people of different ages at one point in time.

Teratogens

Harmful substances or environmental factors that can damage a developing fetus (ex. alcohol)

Fine motor control

Small, precise movements (ex. using hands to write)

Gross motor control

Large body movements (ex. crawling, walking)

Rooting reflex

An infant’s instinct to turn toward a touch on the cheek to find food

Visual cliff

A test showing depth perception in infants.

Critical period

A specific time when an experience is essential for normal development.

Imprinting

Rapid attachment during a critical period, seen in some animals

Adolescent physical development

Physical changes during adolescence, including growth spurts and sexual maturation

Puberty

Period of maturation enabling reproduction

Menarche

First menstrual period

Spermarche

First ejaculation

Menopause

Natural end of menstruation and fertility

Late-life physical decline

Gradual decreases in physical abilities during aging

Piaget’s theory

Children develop cognitively through stages as they interact with the world

Schema

A mental framework for organizing knowledge

Schema assimilation

Interpreting new information using existing schemas

Schema accomodation

Modifying schemas to fit new information

Sensorimotor stage

Birth–2 yrs - learning through senses and actions

Pre-operational stage

Ages 2–7 - symbolic thinking but limited logic

Concrete operational stage

Ages 7–11 - logical thinking about concrete objects.

Object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
Stage: Sensorimotor

Mental symbols

The ability to use words, images, or objects to represent something else. Stage: Pre-operational

Pretend play

Using imagination to create scenarios and roles (e.g., a stick as a sword). Stage: Pre-operational

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. Stage: Concrete operational

Reversibility

Understanding that actions or operations can be undone (e.g., pouring water back).
Stage: Concrete operational

Egocentrism

Difficulty understanding that others have perspectives different from one’s own. Stage: Pre-operational

Animism

Belief that inanimate objects have feelings or intentions.
Stage: Pre-operational

Theory of mind

Understanding that others have thoughts and feelings different from one’s own. Stage: Pre-operational (4-5 yrs old)

Formal operational stage

Adolescence+ - abstract and hypothetical thinking

Vygotsky’s Theory

Cognitive development is shaped by social interaction and culture.

Scaffolding

Temporary support to help a learner master a task.

Zone of proximal development

The gap between what a learner can do alone and with help.

Cognitive changes with age

More crystalized intelligence (knowledge), but worse fluid intelligence (speed/efficiency of problem solving). Strong semantic and implicit memory, but worse episodic memory.

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound in a language.

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in a language.

Grammar vs. Syntax

Grammar is the system of language rules; syntax is sentence structure.

Cooing

Vowel-like sounds made by infants.

Babbling

Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds.

One-word speech

Single words used to convey whole ideas.

Telegraphic speech

Short sentences with only essential words.

Ecological systems theory

Development is influenced by our environments and their interactions

Microsystem

Immediate environment (family, school)

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems

Macrosystem

Cultural values, laws, customs

Chronosystem

Changes over time and life transitions

Authoritative parenting style

Warm, responsive, with clear rules (best outcomes)

Permissive parenting style

High warmth but few rules or limits (leads to poor self-regulation, lower academic achievement and bad impulse control)

Authoritarian parenting style

Low warmth and many strict rules (leads to low self-esteem, high anxiety, depression, and poor social skills)

Secure attachment style

Child feels safe exploring and is comforted by caregiver (caused by consistent, responsive care and needs being met)

Insecure avoidant attachment style

Child avoids caregiver and shows little distress when they leave (caused by caregiver being emotionally distant and needs not being met)

Insecure anxious attachment style

Child is clingy, very distressed by separation, and not easily comforted (caused by inconsistent caregiving)

Insecure disorganized attachment style

Confused, contradictory, unpredictable or fearful behavior toward caregiver (caused by frightening responses from caregiver)

Temperment

Innate emotional and behavioral tendencies.

Separation anxiety

Distress when separated from caregivers.

Contact comfort (Harlow)

Preference for comfort over nourishment in attachment (ex. monkey experiment)

Parallel play

Children play side by side without interacting.

Imaginary audience

Belief that others are constantly watching and judging.

Personal fable

Belief in one’s uniqueness and invincibility.

Erikson psychosocial stages

Eight stages focused on social conflicts across the lifespan.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events in childhood linked to later health risks.

Social clock

Cultural expectations for the timing of major life events

Identity

A coherent sense of self, values, and goals (can be sexual, occupational, religious, racial, etc)

Erik Erikson Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Trust and  mistrust

• Autonomy and shame and doubt

• Initiative and guilt

• Industry and inferiority

• Identity and role confusion

• Intimacy and isolation

• Generativity and stagnation

• Integrity and despair

Identity Statuses

• Achievement: Identity achievement occurs when a person explores different options and makes a strong commitment to their chosen values and goals.

• Diffusion: Identity diffusion is a state in which a person has not explored options or made commitments.

• Foreclosure: Identity foreclosure happens when a person commits to an identity without exploring alternatives, often adopting others’ expectations.

• Moratorium: Identity moratorium is a period of active exploration of identity without having yet made a commitment.