Psychology Final Exam Flashcards

Flashcards for reviewing psychology concepts for the final exam. Focuses on vocabulary.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another, focusing on social and situational factors.

Social Influence

The ways in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others.

Construals

The ways people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world, shaped by situation, motives and past experiences.

Archival Analysis

A form of observational research using existing records to study behavior.

Correlational Method

Measures the relationship between two variables to predict one from the other.

Positive Correlation

Indicates that as one variable increases, the other increases.

Negative Correlation

Indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

Surveys

A common correlational method involving self-reported data from a representative sample.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

Internal Validity

Ensuring that only the independent variable is causing the observed changes in the dependent variable.

External Validity

The extent to which results can be generalized to other settings, populations, or times.

Basic Research

Conducted to gain theoretical understanding.

Applied Research

Conducted to solve real-world problems.

Automatic Thinking

Nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless thinking.

Schemas

Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the world.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make quick judgments.

Availability Heuristic

People base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind.

Representative Heuristic

Mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case.

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

Mental shortcut that involves using a numeric value as a starting point, and then adjusting one’s answer away from this anchor.

Controlled Thinking

Effortful and deliberate thinking used to correct automatic impressions or making complex decisions.

Nonverbal Behavior

Communication without words (facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice).

Implicit Personality Theories

Assumptions about which personality traits go together.

Analytic Thinking

Focus on properties of object or people, play less attention to context or situation.

Holistic Thinking

Focus on the object or person AND the surrounding context and relationships between them

Causal Attribution

Explaining the causes of behavior.

Covariation Model

People consider consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency to determine internal vs. external attributions.

The Correspondence Bias/Fundamental Attribution Error

Overemphasizing personality and underestimating situational factors when explaining other's behavior.

Actor/Observer Difference

We attribute our own behaviors to situations but other’s behaviors to dispositions.

Self-Serving Attributions

We take credit for success (internal) and blame external factors for failure.

Self-Knowledge

Understanding who we are and how we form that understanding.

Independent View of the Self

Common in western cultures, emphasizes independence.

Interdependent View of the Self

Common in eastern cultures, emphasizes interdependence.

Relational Interdependence

Focus on close relationships.

Collective Interdependence

Focus on memberships in larger groups.

Introspection

Looking inward to examine our thoughts, feelings, and motives.

Self-Perception Theory

We infer our own attitudes and feelings by observing our behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation

Desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting.

Extrinsic Motivation

Desire to engage in activity because of external rewards or pressures.

Social Comparison Theory

We evaluate ourselves by comparing to others.

Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort from holding conflicting cognitions, leads to attitude or behavior change to reduce discomfort.

External Justification

A reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual.

Internal Justification

The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (attitude or behavior).

Cognitively Based Attitudes

Beliefs about the properties of the attitude object

Explicit Attitudes

Conscious and reportable attitudes.

Implicit Attitudes

Involuntary and unconscious attitudes.

Persuasive Communications

Messages aimed at changing people’s attitudes.

Fear-Arousing Communications

Persuasive messages that attempt to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears.

Yale Attitude Change Approach

Effectiveness depends on the source, message, and audience.

Central Route to Persuasion

Careful, thoughtful consideration of arguments.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Superficial cues like attractiveness or emotions influencing attitude change.

Attitude Inoculation

Exposure to weak arguments strengthens resistance to persuasion.

Reactance Theory

People react against threats to their freedom.

Informational Social Influence

Relying on others for information, especially in ambiguous situations.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted.

Injunctive Norms

Perceptions of what behaviors are approved.

Descriptive Norms

Perceptions of what people actually do.

Group

Two or more people who interact with and influence one another.

Social Facilitation

Better performance on simple tasks, worse on complex tasks in presence of others.

Social Loafing

The tendency to perform worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when individual performance cannot be evaluated.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in groups leads to impulsive behaviors.

Process Loss

Inefficiencies in group decision making.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Social Dilemmas

Conflicts between individual interest and collective benefit.

Propinquity Effect

Being physically close increases liking.

Mere Exposure Effect

Familiarity increases liking.

Reciprocal Liking

We like people who like us.

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

Love = intimacy + passion + commitment.

Compassionate Love

Deep affection without passion.

Passionate Love

Intense longing and arousal.

Evolution and Mate Selection

Prioritize physical attractiveness in mate selection.

Evolutionary Psychology and Prosocial Behavior

Helping relatives increases inclusive fitness.

Social Exchange Theory and Prosocial Behavior

People help when benefits outweigh costs.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Helping due to empathy, regardless of personal gain.

Heroic Acts

Men display these acts more.

Nurturing Support

Women display this support more.

Bystander Effect

More bystanders = less likely help is given.

Urban Overload Hypothesis

City environments reduce the likelihood of noticing someone in need.

Communal vs Exchange relationships

Help more in close relationships than formal ones.

Aggression

Intentional behavior aimed at causing physical or psychological pain.

Hostile Aggression

Driven by anger; goal is to cause pain.

Instrumental Aggression

Means to an end more psychological.

Frustration-Aggression Theory

Blocked goals lead to frustration increasing aggression.

Stereotypes

Cognitive beliefs about the characteristics of a group, generalizations that ignore variation.

Prejudice

A hostile or negative attitude toward people based solely on group membership.

Discrimination

Unjust treatment based on group membership results in biased behavior.

Institutionalized Discrimination

Built into systems.

Microaggressions

Subtle insults or slights.

Social Distance

Avoiding physical or social closeness.

Antilocution

Verbal expression of prejudice.

Realistic Conflict Theory

Prejudice arises from competition over resources.

Contact Hypothesis

Contact between groups can reduce prejudice under certain conditions.