psych 2.3-2.7

Central executive system

responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources, making decisions, and managing the overall flow of information.

Working memory model

A model of short-term memory that emphasizes its active, multi-component nature

Central executive

supervises and coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Phonological loop

A component of working memory that processes and stores auditory and verbal information

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory that processes and stores visual and spatial information.

Multi-store model

A model of memory proposed suggesting three distinct memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

The brief initial stage of memory that holds information in its original sensory form for a very short period

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds brief visual information, typically lasting less than a second.

Echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds brief auditory information, typically lasting 3-4 seconds.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system, converting sensory information into a form usable by memory.

Retrieval

The process of accessing information that has been stored in memory.

Levels of processing model

the depth at which information is processed influences how well it is remembered.

Shallow processing

Processing information based on its superficial sensory characteristics. Weak memories.

Deepest Processing

Processing information based on its meaning (semantic processing), Strong memories.

Structural Processing

A shallow level of processing that focuses on the physical characteristics of information, like font or appearance of words.

Phonemic Processing

A shallow level of processing that focuses on the sound of words.

Semantic Processing

A deep level of processing that focuses on the meaning of words and connecting them to existing knowledge.

Explicit memory

Conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts.

Implicit memory

Unconscious, unintentional memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness.

Long-term potentiation

A persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory that stores information about how to perform various actions, skills, and habits.

Short term memory

A memory store that holds a limited amount of information for a brief period without rehearsal

Long term memory

A virtually limitless and relatively permanent memory store for information over extended periods.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space and time

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory that stores specific events and experiences, including their context. (mental diary).

Encoding

The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices to help encode and retrieve information.

Method of loci

A mnemonic device involving associating items to be remembered with a sequence of familiar physical locations.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units to increase the capacity of short-term memory.

Hierarchies

Organizing information into broad concepts divided into narrower concepts and facts.

Categories

Grouping similar items or concepts together to aid in memory organization and retrieval.

The spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Memory consolidation

The neural process by which a temporary, labile memory is transformed into a more stable, long-lasting form.

Massed practice

Cramming

Distributed practice

Spreading out study sessions over time.

Serial position effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Primacy effect

The tendency to remember information presented at the beginning of a list better than information in the middle.

Recency effect

The tendency to remember information presented at the end of a list better than information in the middle.

Storage

The process of maintaining information in memory over time.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory, without necessarily understanding it or connecting it to prior knowledge.

Elaborative rehearsal

A method of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory by making it meaningful in some way.

Autobiographical memory

A form of explicit memory consisting of a person's life experiences.

Amnesia

Partial or total loss of memory, usually due to psychological trauma or brain injury.

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of the amnesia.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories after the onset of the amnesia.

Alzheimer’s disease

A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory.

Infantile amnesia

The inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from before the age of 2-4 years.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information from long-term memory.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier.

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned.

Context dependent memory

The improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

State-dependant memory

Improved recall for information when a person is in the same physical or psychological state during encoding and retrieval.

Retrieval practice

Repeatedly retrieving information from memory, rather than just rereading it.

Testing effect

The finding that actively testing one's memory of information improves long-term retention compared to simply restudying the material.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Constructive memory

The idea that memory is not a perfect recording of events but rather an active process of constructing and reconstructing past events.

Misinformation effect

Incorporation of misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Source amnesia

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.

Consolidation

The process by which memories become stable in the brain.

Imagination inflation

The finding that simply imagining an event can increase confidence that the event actually occurred.

Forgetting curve

A graph showing that the course of forgetting is initially rapid.

Inference (proactive or retroactive)

An explanation for forgetting in which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

The temporary inability to retrieve a word or information.

Encoding failure

New information never enters long-term memory.

Storage failure

Loss of memory due to the decay of memory traces over time or brain damage.

Retrieval failure

Inability to access information from long-term memory, even though the memory is still stored.

Ego distress (repression)

A Freudian defense mechanism where anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories are pushed into the unconscious.