14. President Nixon's policies in Vietnam

Why was the USA's credibility as a global power under threat?

Due to its inability to achieve a military victory in Vietnam. A premature withdrawal with no tangible success would have been a disaster for Nixon.

What did Nixon want for Vietnam?

'peace with honour'
This amounted to ensuring that SV remained an independent, non - communist state.

Vietnamisation

the US policy of withdrawing its troops and transferring the responsibility and direction of the war effort to the government of South Vietnam.

Why did Nixon introduce Vietnamisation?

He hoped that it would negate the growing domestic opposition and thereby strengthen his own political security as president.
He hoped it would strengthen his negotiating position with North Vietnam.

What did Nixon believe about the dual intent of Vietnamisation?

That it would convince the NV that SV was secure in any threat against them. It showed that the USA was willing to withdraw therefore fulfilling an important strategic objective for NV.

What was Nixon's whole strategy designed to do?

Encourage North Vietnam to agree to a negotiated compromise.

What was Vietnamisation about?

Not the abandonment of South Vietnam but part of a wider strategy designed to limit the USA's engagement in foreign conflicts that were unwinnable.
A new sense of realism had arrived

Nixon did not intend to leave Vietnam w/o success

He poured resources into SV's forces.
Led to troops being paid more, and career structures improved, benefits increased and service conditions modernised.

What was the equipment of the ARVN updated with?

the introduction of the M-16 Armalite rifle. There was an increase in other weapons, including military vehicles, planes and helicopters.
The USA ensured that the South Vietnamese Army was ready for action and to manage its own war.

By how much did the ARVN increase in size?

from 82,000 in 1968 to one million by 1970

The impact of Vietnamisation

Appeared to transform the South Vietnamese military into an effective fighting force, in that it seemed to enable it to preserve stability in SV and resist aggression from the North.

Spring Offensive 1972

NV launched its spring offensive which served as a test of Vietnamisation. The ARVN resisted this offensive and although it suffered about 8000 causalities, the North suffered almost 5 times that number.

Who was the ARVN supported by?

US bombing campaign and during May to October, Operation Line-backer I saw 150,000 tons of bombs dropped on North Vietnam, in addition to bombing North Vietnamese troops who were operating in SV.
These actions served to boost morale amongst the ARVN and to indicate to the North that Vietnamisation had not reduced the effort in SV and its allies.

Chronic problems facing ARVN:

- the morale of the ARVN remained low. the relatively high casualty rates reinforced this.
- endemic problems of corruption and favouritism were not resolved.
- Vietnamisation was rushed through by Nixon
- The ARVN had, since 1965, assumed a secondary role while US forces conducted the war.
- Building the size of the ARVN was merely a façade and didn't address the weakness of corruption
- Vietnamisation didn't increase a sense of patriotism amongst the ARVN

Vietnamisation impact

positive outcome domestically for Nixon but it did little to strengthen the USA's overriding aim of achieving 'peace with honour' in Vietnam.

Cambodia

In March 1969, Nixon instigated a military offensive in Cambodia. Operation Menu was a bombing offensive designed to target those parts of Cambodia regarded as safe by the North Vietnamese Army and the Vietcong.

Why did Nixon extend the war into Cambodia?

- sever the supply lines based on the Ho Chi Minh Trail
- pressurise NV into agreeing to an acceptable peace settlement for SV
- compensate for the planned Vietnamisation programme and so retain the confidence and commitment of South Vietnam

Khmer Rouge

A group of Communist rebels who seized power in Cambodia in 1975.

What happened in March 1970 in Cambodia?

Cambodia's Head of State was overthrown by the pro-US General Lon Nol. NV increased its presence in Cambodia as the Khmer Rouge pushed towards the capital, Phnom Penh, during March 1970.

Why was communist control of Cambodia bad for Nixon?

It would undermine Vietnamisation because US forces would be needed to counter any pro NV assault on SV from Cambodia.
Nixon also reasoned that a show of force in Cambodia would reinforce his intention to prove to the NV that the US was still committed to SV, and this would add pressure on them to compromise in diplomacy and therefore strengthen the USA's negotiating position.

Actions taken in Cambodia

SV forces, with US air support, carried out cross-border raids into Cambodia.

In April 1970 the USA committed 20,000 ground troops to Cambodia.

However this show of support was negated by an announcement by Nixon later that month, in which he said that 150,000 troops would be withdrawn from SV within one year.

Consequences of extending the war into Cambodia for NV:

- The ability of the Vietcong to operate in Cambodia was seriously undermined as large areas of jungle were destroyed
- Large amounts of the Vietcong's supplies and equipment was either captured or destroyed
- Any possibility of a major NV Offensive against the South was seriously undermined due to the losses faced by the North Vietnamese in Cambodia
- The NV moved deeper into Cambodia and strengthened their support for Khmer Rouge in order to overthrow Lon Nol and establish a pro-communist regime under Pol Pot.

Consequences of extending the war into Cambodia for USA:

- No strategic gains were achieved by the US from the incursion into Cambodia
- The NV increased role in Cambodia committed the USA to safeguard Lon Nol's regime as well as the Sigon regime.
- The invasion of Cambodia increased the USA's commitment while it was trying to withdraw its forces and pressurise NV into diplomatic cooperation, to enable Nixon to achieve his objective of 'peace with honour.'
- Opposition to the war at home increased.

Opposition to the extension of the war into Cambodia:

The press led the opposition to what Nixon described as an 'incursion' into Cambodia. The 'incursion' consolidated the protest mood that already existed among diverse groups of Americans.
In May 1970, widespread student protests emerged. On the campus of Kent State University in Ohio, four students were shot by US National Guards. This served to fuel nationwide protests.
In June the US senate voted to remove the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and with it the president's unfettered control of the conduct of the war in Vietnam.

Why did Nixon extend the war into Laos?

Disabling the Ho Chi Minh Trail on its route through Laos could stall the logistical support that the NV were so dependent on.

How did Nixon get around the Congress ban on US ground troops from entering either Cambodia or Laos after the 'Cambodian incursion'?

The assault into Laos would be carried out by SV forces with US air support.

Operation Lam Son 719 (Feb 1971)

A plan to support an ARVN invasion of Laos with US air support. Its aim was to disrupt North Vietnamese supply lines along the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos, and prevent an invasion of SV as US troop numbers continued to fall.

The invasion into Laos

An inadequate force of about 30,000 ARVN troops attacked and faced a dogged resistance from a superior NV force. The ARVN was forced to withdraw.

Consequences of the invasion of Laos

Highlighted the weakness of the ARVN and its leadership. Its leaders were more interested in pleasing President Nguyen Van Thieu than winning battles. He had ordered that when his forces reached 3000 casualties, they should stop any advance.
Hence the ARVN only got halfway towards its targets in Laos before retreating.

Consequences of the extension into Laos on USA:

It had shown that the ARVN only had a chance of defeating the North when it had US air support. The invasion simply spurred the NV onto the offensive rather than the defensive showing that Nixon was failing to achieve 'peace with honour.'

improved sino american relationship described as

Ping Pong Diplomacy

Improved sino- American relations encouraged by whom?

President Nixon and his principal adviser on foreign policy, Henry Kissinger, recognised the advantages open to the USA through improved Sino-American relations

Worsening Sino-Soviet relations

A split had occurred by 1960s. Although China and the USSR shared a communist outlook, this didn't bring unity. Hostility between the two countries increased and became publicly open from 1960.

What did Mao Zedong criticise the USSR over?

Over backing down in the Cuban Missile crisis and even claimed that the USSR had slipped back into capitalism. By the late 1960s, there were clashes between Soviet and Chinese troops on the Sino-Soviet border. Sensing its international isolation, China made a move to ease relations with the West.

Who was a prime mover in the improvement of relations with China?

Nixon.
In 1968, he commented that the US should seek opportunities to talk with China and actively seek to make changes. He realised that China was a developing nuclear power and a major political power & strategic force. A communist power independent of USSR.

When did the first steps take place towards improved Sino- US relations?

July 1969
The USA removed some trade controls and relaxed some travel restrictions. Part of the 'artichoke approach', based on the gradual removal of restrictions
Nixon also managed a number of diplomatic contacts through France, Romania and Pakistan. The aim of these was to use their diplomatic connections with China to express a willingness to work towards improving Sino-American relations.
By early 1970, some initial connections between China and the USA had been established in Warsaw.

Who achieved a major victory in advocating for Sino-US relations in August to September 1970?

Zhou Enlai, China's prime minister, achieved a major victory over those who opposed to China opening improved relations with the USA.
There was a policy shift away from dual confrontation with both the Soviet Union and the USA, and towards a recognition that the former was a greater threat to China.

What delayed developments between Sino-US relations?

American military action in Cambodia in May 1970 and the subsequent action in February 1971 in Laos, as part of the US military strategy in the conflict in Vietnam.
It didn't have a fundamental impact as the USA had already begun a policy of withdrawing troops.

Kissinger visits Beijing

July 1971
The most significant outcome of this trip was an agreement to establish a presidential visit and a Sino-American summit meeting in early 1972.

When was a barrier to a thaw in Sino-US relations removed?

With the death of Mao's designated successor and opponent of Sino-US relations, Lin Biao, in September 1971. This strengthened Mao's and Zhou's ability to improve relations with the USA.

In October 1971, Kissinger made a second trip to Beijing in preparation for the Nixon visit. Despite his efforts, Kissinger failed to persuade China to pressurise NV into engaging in a peace process.

The beginning of the Paris Peace Talks

Johnson's secretary of Defence, Clark Clifford, advocated negotiation as part of a strategy to bring the war to a close.

Soon after Johnson's declaration.....

Hanoi accepted talks concerning Johnson's willingness to end the bombing of NV. It was a tentative start and in May 1968, preliminary talks began in Paris.
The talks soon stalled over whether or not the USA would commit itself to stopping all the bombing of NV.
Johnson was concerned that the North was not fully committed to negotiations and that it would use a lull in the bombing to prepare for a further offensive in the South.

Unresolved issue of who would be represented at the negotiating table

e.g would the NLF have a deal. By October 1968, the talks had reached a point of stalemate. The SV were fiercely oppositional to the whole concept of negotiations with NV if the NLF were represented.

What were the early talks in Paris undermined by?

March 1968
Hanoi's forces were on the defensive rather than the offensive after Tet. This meant that the North would not commit itself to any action or decision that may have appeared weak such as a de-escalation of its efforts which was what the USA was seeking.

What would the USA not agree to?

A blanket end of the bombing of North Vietnam. Johnson remained committed to bombing and he warned of an escalation of the war if NV were uncooperative.
These initial talks died down although the negotiation approach to the conflict remained.

In February 1970, who did Kissinger secretly meet?

Le Duc Tho, a communist politician who served as a special adviser to NV during the negotiations.
Their meetings took place in Paris

What were the demands for negotiations like for Nixon and Kissinger?

Unrealistic.
Discussions resumed in May 1971 and finally stalled in November. A fundamental issue was the NV demand for the removal of Thieu.
Kissinger feared that SV would collapse into chaos as it would see US actions as a betrayal.

When was a turning point in negotiations seen?

October 1972.
The NV moderated their position on Thieu's removal from power. Not to do so would have ensured that the war carried on

When was Kissinger’s second visit to Beijing?

October 1971 - in preparation for the Nixon visit.

Despite his efforts, Kissinger failed to persuade China to pressurise NV into engaging in a peace process.

What did Le Duc Tho insist on?

He insisted that any peace settlement must encompass both a military and a political solution, and that an armistice must trigger a replacement of the current Saigon regime and the introduction of a coalition government with Vietcong representatives.