Anatomy Exam One

Levels of Organization

Chemical Level → Cellular Level → Tissue Level → Organ Level → Organ System Level → Organism Level

Cell

The smallest unit that can carry out all the functions of life.

Metabolism

Chemical processes that allow for “building” (anabolic) and “destroying” (catabolic) bonds. Chemical through organ system level.

Growth

When there is more anabolic activity than catabolic activity. Cellular, tissue, and organism level.

Excretion

Process of removing metabolic waste products. Cellular, organ, and organ system level.

Movement

Motion inside and between cells; motion of a cell/tissue/organ… itself and the organism. All levels of organization.

Reproduction

Cells or the organism making offspring or copies of themselves. Cellular, organ system, and organism levels.

Responsiveness

Sense and react to changes in their environment (internal and external) Cellular and organism level.

Human Anatomy

The scientific study of the body’s structures.

Human Physiology

The scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life.

Anterior / Ventral

Toward the front

Posterior / Dorsal

Toward the back

Superior / Cranial

Toward the head

Inferior / Caudal

Toward the tail

Proximal

Closer to the point of origin (generally the trunk)

Distal

Farther away from the point of origin (generally the trunk)

Medial

Closer to the midline of the body or a body part; on the inner side of

Lateral

Farther away from the midline of the body or a body part; on the outer side of

Superficial

Closer to the surface

Deep

Farther below the surface

Integumentary System Functions

Act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world, retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature.

Integumentary System Components

Hair, skin, and nails.

Nervous System Functions

Responsible for the control of the body and communication among its parts.

Nervous System Components

Brian, spinal cord, nerves.

Skeletal System Functions

Support and provides the framework for the muscular system. Movement of the body and protection of vital organs. Blood cell production. Calcium storage and endocrine regulation.

Skeletal System Components

Bones and joints.

Muscular System Functions

Movement of the human body through attachments to the bones of the skeletal system. Contraction of hollow organs. Contraction of skeletal and cardiac muscle.

Muscular System Components

Skeletal muscles.

Endocrine System Functions

Collection of glands and other organs that produce hormones. The hormones regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things.

Endocrine System Components

Pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.

Respiratory Sytem Functions

Take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide. Work in concert with the cardiovascular system for external and internal respiration.

Respiratory System Components

Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs.

Cardiovascular System Functions

Transport of nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to the cells throughout the body. Removal of metabolic wastes (includes carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes).

Cardiovascular System Components

Blood vessels and heart.

Lymphatic System Functions

Removal of interstitial fluid from tissues, absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats from the digestive system. Transports white blood cells between lymph nodes, bones, and other areas in the body.

Lymphatic System Components

Tonsils, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymphatic vessels.Di

Digestive System Functions

Digest food and drink into small molecules. Absorb the resulting small molecules into the body for the body’s use.

Digestive System Components

Mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, liver, stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, large intestine, and small intestine.

Urinary System Functions

Remove liquid waste from the blood in the form of urine. Keep a stable balance of salts and other substances in the blood. Produce erythropoietin, a hormone that aids in the formation of red blood cells.

Urinary System Components

Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Reproductive System Functions

Females: Produce egg cells, nourish and protect the offspring through parturition. Nourish the new offspring.

Males: Produce sperm

Both: Produce the sex hormones

Reproductive System Components

Male: Prostate gland, ductus deferns, testis, and penis.

Female: Mammary glands, uterine tube, ovary, uterus, and vagina.

Homeostasis

Result of a wide range of coordinated processes or variables. Examples: internal temperature, chemical composition of blood and other body fluids. To prevent homeostatic imbalances, most variables in the internal environment are controlled, or regulated, so they stay close to a particular normal value.

Feedback Loops

Control mechanism is activated when a regulated variable changes. Made up of a series of events that lead to a response or output of some sort.

Negative Feedback Loop

Opposing the initial change and reducing the output. Most prevalent type. The effector’s activity shuts off when conditions return to the normal range.

Positive Feedback Loop

Reinforcing the initial change and increasing the output. Not as common. The effector’s activity increases in response to a stimulus; positive feedback reinforces the initial stimulus.

Set Point

Each regulated variable has its own ____ or normal range.

Stimulus

Variable change from set point.

Sensor / Receptor

Detection of stimulus change to the regulated variable. Typically, a sensory neuron or another specialized cell.

Control Center

Where the receptor sends stimulus information. Typically, cells of an endocrine gland or cells in the brain. The control center relays information to an effector (cells or organs).

Effector

Cause physiological responses that either return the variable to the normal range or increases stimulus until an end point is reached.

Pathophysiology

Physiology of abnormal states. Exploration of how homeostasis is disrupted by syndromes or diseases at various levels of organization facilitates understanding of how the human body normally operates.

Synthesis / Anabolic Reaction

Joining reactants together, forming a larger product.

Decomposition / Catabolic Reaction

Break down reactants into smaller products.

Bond

A weak or strong electrical attraction that holds atoms in the same vicinity close to one another.

Molecular

2 or more of the same atoms bonded together

Compound

2 or more different atoms bonded together

Macromolecules

Large compounds composed of many atoms held together by chemical bonds. Ex: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleotides.

Ionic Bonds

Occurs between a metal and a non-metal. Results from the metal cation giving away electrons to a nonmetal anion.

Covalent Bonds

Occurs when atoms share electrons. The close sharing of pairs of electrons makes covalent bonds stronger than ionic bonds. 1 pair of electrons = the pairing of one electron from each of two atoms = 1 single covalent bond

Two Types of Covalent Bonds

Non-polar and Polar

Non-Polar

Electrons are shared equally. Ex: CO₂ and O₂

Polar

Electrons are not shared equally; electrons are attracted to the most positive atom. Ex: H₂O

Hydrogen Bonds

Not true bonds. Instead, weak attraction between partially positive hydrogen atoms and partially negative non-metal atoms that already have a polar covalent bond. Occur between molecules and not between atoms or ions.

Enzymes

Can influence chemical reactions. Most important catalysts in the human body a substance that increase the rate of a chemical reaction. Composed mainly of proteins, with or without RNA. Lowers the activation energy needed to break or make chemical bonds in reactants.

Monomers

Single subunits that combine to build larger structures.

Polymers

Result of monomers and/or repeating molecules linked together.

Dehydration Synthesis

Chemical reaction where two monomers are linked by a covalent bond. Products = polymer and H₂O.

Hydrolysis (water splitting)

Chemical reaction where covalent bonds between polymers are broken and H₂O is a reactant. Products = monomers and/or smaller components.

Carbohydrates

All body cells convert glucose into ATP for cellular energy. Some carbohydrate molecules bind to proteins or lipids to produce glycoproteins and glycolipids, respectively, both of which are found in the plasma membrane.

Monosaccharides

Main hexose = glucose or blood sugar

Fructose - found in most fruits and some vegetables

Galactose - found in dairy products

Disaccharides

Compound of two monosaccharides joined by a polar covalent bond called a glycolytic bond

Sucrose - glucose and fructose; “table sugar”

Maltose - glucose and glucose; breakdown of polysaccharides

Lactose - glucose and galactose; found in milk

Polysaccharides

Long branches of monosaccharides used to store glucose for later use

Plants store glucose as starch

Animals store glucose as glycogen

Lipids

Highly diverse group of compounds made up mostly of nonpolar hydrocarbons. All lipids are hydrophobic (do not dissolve in water). Main functions depend on the form and structure (triglyceride, phospholipid, steroids)

Saturated Fatty Acids

Solid at room temperature. No double carbon bonds. (palmitic acid)

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Oil at room temperature. Contains double carbon bonds.

Monounsaturated Fat

One double carbon bond (oleic acid)

Polyunsaturated Fat

Two or more double carbon bonds (linoleic acid and omega-3 fatty acid)

Triglyceride

Storage of three fatty acids by dehydration synthesis to a modified 3-carbon sugar called glycerol.

Triglyceride Functions

Major fuel source for the body, assists the absorption and transport of nonpolar fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Protect and cushion bones and internal organs.

Phospholipid Structure

Phosphate-containing group is polar (hydrophilic) with two fatty acids attached to a glycerol group that are nonpolar (hydrophobic)

Phospholipids Functions

Emulsifiers (compounds that help disperse fats in aqueous liquids) and the main component of the cell membrane.

Steroids Structure

A set of four hydrocarbon rings bonded to a variety of other atoms and molecules.

Main Functions of Cholesterol (most important to humans)

Component of bile acids; compounds that help emulsify dietary fats. Make up several hormones. Found in the cell membrane to help cells withstand heat.

Protein Functions

Parts of chemicals including antibodies, neurotransmitters that neurons use to communicate, and the peptide-based hormones that regulate certain body functions. Components of enzymes that speed up chemical reactions. Excellent buffers helping the body regulate acid-base balance.

Monomer of Proteins: Amino Acids

Amino acids consist of a central carbon atom to which the following are bonded: hydrogen atom, amino group (basic), carboxyl group (acidic), and variable side chain (R group).

Peptides

Form by dehydration synthesis. Many proteins are one or more polypeptide chains folded into distinct structures.

Dipeptides

Two amino acids joined together by a peptide bond.

Polypeptides

10+ amino acids long

Primary Structure

The amino acid sequence of the polypeptide.

Secondary Structure

Amino acids of the protein interact via H bonds to form an alpha helix or a beta-pleated sheet.

Tertiary Structure

Interactions between R groups help to determine the shape the protein assumes after it is folded. Globular and fibrous proteins.

Fibrous Proteins

Long strands of mostly nonpolar amino acids. Found in hair, nails, tendons, and bone. Allow tissues to resist stretching and twisting forces.

Globular Proteins

Roughly spherical shaped. Most are polar. Functions as enzymes, membrane proteins, hormones, and other cell messengers.

Quartenary Structure

Two or more polypeptide chains that are assembled into the functional protein.

Nucleotides

Make up the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, plus ATP.

Structure of the Nucleotide Monomer

Phosphate group, pentose sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), and a nitrogen-containing base: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Storage and execution of the genetic code.

Specific to DNA

Double-stranded, used to make RNA, complementary base pairing, and structure held together by phosphodiester and hydrogen bonds. Used to make RNA

Specific to RNA

Most are single-stranded and have a variety of functional roles, including making proteins. The single-stranded structure is held together by phosphodiester bonds; any double-stranded parts are held together by hydrogen bonds.