Chapter 6: Learning

Learning

A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

Behaviorism

Psychological approach focusing only on observable behaviors, not mental processes.

Associative learning

Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection between two events (classical and operant conditioning).

Observational learning

Learning that occurs by observing and imitating others’ behavior (modeling).

Classical conditioning

Learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and gains capacity to elicit a response.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian psychologist who discovered classical conditioning with dog salivation experiments.

Conditioning

The process of learning associations.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food).

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unlearned reaction to the UCS (e.g., salivation).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with UCS and elicits response.

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Contingency

CS must reliably predict UCS for conditioning to occur.

Contiguity

CS and UCS must be presented close in time.

Phobias and classical conditioning

Watson & Rayner’s Little Albert experiment showed fear could be conditioned.

Applications of classical conditioning

Advertising, placebo effect, immune responses, drug tolerance, taste aversion.

Generalization (classical conditioning)

CR occurs after stimuli that are similar to the CS.

Discrimination (classical conditioning)

CR only occurs to specific CS, not similar stimuli.

Extinction (classical conditioning)

CR weakens when CS is presented without UCS.

Spontaneous recovery

CR reappears after extinction following a time delay.

Operant conditioning

Learning process in which the consequences of behavior change the probability of that behavior.

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, negative outcomes are weakened.

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist who studied operant conditioning using the “Skinner box.”

Shaping

Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., praise for homework).

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., taking aspirin to remove headache).

Avoidance reinforcement

Behavior prevents a negative stimulus from ever occurring.

Learned helplessness

When an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes.

Primary reinforcer

Innately satisfying (food, water, sex).

Secondary reinforcer

Becomes satisfying through experience and association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, tokens).

Generalization (operant conditioning)

Performing reinforced behavior in new situations.

Discrimination (operant conditioning)

Learning that a behavior is reinforced only under certain conditions or cues.

Extinction (operant conditioning)

Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops.

Schedules of reinforcement

Rules that determine how and when behavior is reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior only sometimes; more resistant to extinction.

Fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcement follows a set number of behaviors.

Variable ratio schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of behaviors (e.g., gambling).

Fixed interval schedule

Reinforcement after a set amount of time passes.

Variable interval schedule

Reinforcement after varying, unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment

Consequence that decreases likelihood of a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., scolding).

Negative punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away TV time).

Immediate vs delayed reinforcement

Immediate is more effective than delayed reinforcement in shaping behavior.

Applied behavior analysis

Application of operant principles to change human behavior; widely used for autism spectrum disorder.

Observational learning processes (Bandura)

Attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement.