Unit 5: Cognition

Memory

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of info

recall

retrieving info that wasn’t in your conscious awareness before but was learned before. Ex: a fill-in-the-bank question on a test (recognition)

recognition

identifying terms that you learned before. Ex: multiple choice questions on a test (recognition)

Relearning

learning something quier the second time your learn it. Ex: studying for a final exam after learning content the whole year.

3 parts of info processing model

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

process of getting info into memory system. Ex: taking meaning from smt or remembering someone by smt they usually wear (office scene)

storage

retained encoded info overtime

retrieval

a process of getting info out of memory storage n back out. Ex: smt happens and it triggers a memory from the past.

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem at the same time (brain’s natural mode of info processing) Ex: multitasking

Atkinson and Shifkin’s 3 stage model of memory forming

1. record inpmortant info in short sensory memory

2. process info into short-term memory n encode with repetition

3. info goes into long-term memory

working memory

learning by adding new info to prior long-term knowledge (happens through senses like hearning n visual)

explicit memories

remembering facts n experiences (conscious)

Implicit memory

remembering learned skills or clasically condition assosiations (automatic memory n unconscious)

effortful processing

encoding that rewuires attention n conscious effort. Ex: remembering a phone number.

automatic processing

uncosnious encoding of accidental info. Ex: rememebering where on teh page you read something, or keeping track of how many times something happened.

iconic memory

sensory memory of visual stimuli that is quick: picture-image memory which lasts less than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

quick sensory memory of auditory stimuli: if attention is on smt else, sounds n word can still be reached 3-4 seconds after.

chunking

organizing itemrs into familiar, manegeable units which often occurs automatically: splitting a phone number into 3 sections)

mnemonics

memory aids, especially tehniques that use vivid imagery n organizational devices: people use excuse my dear aunt Sally to help remember PEMDAS in math

Hierarchies

putting info into catergories n subdivisions to help remember info: taking notes in outline from n putting themin hierachirs like living things→animals→insects and so on.

Shallow processing

encoding on based on structure or appereance of words: word sounds like writing their instead of there (elementary level)

Deep processing

encoding semantically (in a way related to meaning of words): meaning of words, the more meaningful→the more retention (best retention n remembering)

Noam Chomsky

Theory that explains universal grammar is why preeschool kids pick up language easily: all world languages share a common structure

Herman Ebbinghaus

• studied recalling

• the more you repeat a list, the les time is needed to relearn them on another day

Wolfgang kohler

• Humans are not the only creatures to show insight (aha moment)

• Chimps experiment w fruits

Elizabeth Loftus

• proved memory recondolidation : memories can be altered before being stored again which causes us to think things happend when they didn’t

George Miller

• discovered we can store around 7 pieces of info into short-term memory: phone nubers are usually 7 digits

Hippocampus

explicit memories ofr facts n episodes r processed in hippocampus n fed to other brain regions for storage

cerebelum (lil brain that controls balance)

froms n stores implicit memories created by clasicall conditionin: ppl w/ damaged cerebellums can’t develop some reflexes like blinking when someone blows in ther face

Basal Ganglia (brain structure involved in motor movement that makes forming procedure memories for skills easier)

receives input from cortex but doesnt send info back to the cortex to help awareness of procedural learning

Amygdala (2 sized lima bean-sized neural clusters linked to emotion)

emotional or traumatic events cause tunner vision : focus on attention n recall high priority info but forgets irrelelvant details

Semantic memory

refers to facts n general knowledge: geroge washignton was 1st president in usa

episodic memory

experienced events: i had a clown at my 5th bday party

memory consolidation

process wehre brain registers elemonts from experience like smell, feel, sound, locationbut then go to storage somewhere like old files

Infantile amnesia

conscious memory of our first 4 years is mostly blank

flashbulb memories

clear, long-term memory of an emotionally significant event: Americans remember wehre they were ehwn 9/11 happened

LTP- Long-term potentiation

process involving strengthening of synapses whcih speeds a cell’s firing potential which is a basis for learning memory

retrival cues

smells, tastes, etc…

priming

implicit memory effect where expose to stimulis influences response to later stimulus: seeing a poster of a missing child and then later when you see a child n adults simply tslking you think it might be kidnapping

dependant memory

what we learned in a physysiological state is better learned when remebered or recalled back in the same state: someone drunk recalls what they learned better when drunk again

context-dependant memory

stronger recall in the same environment in which original memory was formed: visiting childhood home causes old memories to come back

serial position effect

tendency to recall the last(recency effect) and first(primary effect) items in a list (last items are more remembered bc they are still in working memory like echoic info)

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

cant remember info from the past

proactive interference

prior leraning interrupts recall of new info: when putting a new password, the old passowrd makes the new one harder to remember

retroactive interference

new learning interrupts old info: someone sings the lyrics to a song but u can only remember the remix of it

encoding failure

no encoding effort→potential memories never from: trying to find a book that you never actually bought

storage decay

memories fade fast at first but then fades (if u dont use it, u lose it): we see a penny many times but cant recall the ac design of it

retrieval failure

even when store, some long-term info cant be accessed n causes u to forget: having a name on the tip of ur tongue but cant remember

forgetting curve

what ppl remember after a certain amount of time will be what they remember forever

motivated forgetting

memory systems censor info what we dont want to remember

how does misinformation, imaging, and source info influence memory construction

reconsolidation causes memories to be altered before being stored again, or the misinformation effect happens when people are wtold wrong info. Also imaging can create false memories n stimulate similar brain areas.

source amnesia

bad memory of how, when, or where info was learned or imagined: remembering gossip but not knowing where it came from

why is it not easy to know if we remeber things corruectly (3 reasons)

misinformation effect, source amnesia, forgetting curve

Cognition

mental activities associated w thinking, knowing, remembering n communicating info.

concepts

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category: a crow is a birdier bird than a penguin even though they are both birds

creativity

ability to produce ideas that are both new n valuable

coherent thinking

the thought process that involves judging the frequency or probability of an event or hypothesis

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the best solution: sat tests look at level of one’s ability to learn

divergent thinking

creative tests that look at the ability to consider different options n to look in different ways: writing essays

components of creativity

expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment

expertise

good base of knowledge that can be used as building blocks

imaginative thinking skills

have the ability to see things in new ways, recognize patterns n make connections

venturesome personality

person looks for new experiences, takes risks, n perseveres when overcoming obstacles by being determined

intrinsic motivation

driven by interest, satisfaction, n challenge not external pleasure

creative environment

supports innovation team building n communication

algorithm

step by step procedures that guarantee a solution: following a recipe online to make a cake

heuristic

thinking in shortcuts: being in traffic so u take another way

insight

aha moment, sudden realization to a solution for a problem: re-reading a math problem n understanding it

confirmation bias

leads us to seek evidence for our ideas instead of against them: ignoring info that challenges personal beliefs

fixation

inability to come to a new perspective: in my debate class i refused to listen to the other group’s argument

mental set

tendency to approach problems w the same mindset as what worked before: I studied the night before the last test n got an A so ill do it again next time.

intuition

fast n automatic unreasoned feelings n thoughts

representative heuristic

judging smt intuitively by comparing it to a prototype: a guy who is slim, short n likes to read is more likely to become a professor than an truck driver.

availability heuristic

how common an event is based on its mental availability or how vivid it is, recent or different: ppl are more scared of terrorists than homicides bc 9/11 is more famous

overconfidence

tendecy to be more confident than correct

belief perseverance

tendency to cling on to beliefs even if there is proof otherwise: politics overrode facts once by saying inflation rose but it ac dropped

framing

how we present an issue to persuade or convince: ppl are more supportive of gun safety than gun control bc of wording

3 powers of intuition

actual knowledge we store unconsciously, adaptive so it causes quick reactions, makes use of stuff we are not processing.

phonemes

sound units in language: THAT has phenonems th, ah, and t.

morphemes

smallest language units that carry meaning: word readers has 3 (action, person n means plural)

grammar

language’s set of rules that help ppl communicate

universal grammar

all human languages have nouns, verns, n adjectives as grammar building blocks

receptive language

babie’s ability to understand what’s said to n about them or recognize whats being said to them (listening n reading)

productive language

babie’s ability to produce words n communicate (speaking n writing)

babbling stage

yapper, makes osund of vowels (4 months)

One word stage

learn that sounds carry meaning n start to communicate meaning (1st bday)

2 word stage

speech development means schils speaks mostly in 2-word statements (by 2nd bday)

telegraphic speech

early speech stage where child speaks like telegram: “go car” or “want juice” (2 years old)

critical period of language

later than 2-3 years the capacity of the brain causes a rush n by age 7 if they are not exposed to a language they lose the ability to master it

can deaf ppl learn language

yes

aphasia

impairment of langauge caused by left hemisphere damage on Broca’s area(imparing speaking) or wernicke’s area(impairing understanding)

brocas area

control language expressions (left hemisphere, frontal lobe) n directs muslce movements involved in speech

wernicke’s area

brain involved in language understanding n expressions:left temporal lobe

linguistic determination

whorf’s hypothesis that lnaguge controls the way we think n interpret the world

linguistic influence

idea that lnaguge affects thought :arabic readers think of images from left to right

bilingual advantage

better at being social bc thay can shift between perspectives

2 benefits in thinking in images

achieve academic goals (looking at notees), increased skills when mentally practicing upcoming events

maturation

orderly sequence of bio growth that changes behavior, basic course of development