Studied by 4 people
Memory
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of info
recall
retrieving info that wasn’t in your conscious awareness before but was learned before. Ex: a fill-in-the-bank question on a test (recognition)
recognition
identifying terms that you learned before. Ex: multiple choice questions on a test (recognition)
Relearning
learning something quier the second time your learn it. Ex: studying for a final exam after learning content the whole year.
3 parts of info processing model
encoding, storage, retrieval
encoding
process of getting info into memory system. Ex: taking meaning from smt or remembering someone by smt they usually wear (office scene)
storage
retained encoded info overtime
retrieval
a process of getting info out of memory storage n back out. Ex: smt happens and it triggers a memory from the past.
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem at the same time (brain’s natural mode of info processing) Ex: multitasking
Atkinson and Shifkin’s 3 stage model of memory forming
record inpmortant info in short sensory memory
process info into short-term memory n encode with repetition
info goes into long-term memory
working memory
learning by adding new info to prior long-term knowledge (happens through senses like hearning n visual)
explicit memories
remembering facts n experiences (conscious)
Implicit memory
remembering learned skills or clasically condition assosiations (automatic memory n unconscious)
effortful processing
encoding that rewuires attention n conscious effort. Ex: remembering a phone number.
automatic processing
uncosnious encoding of accidental info. Ex: rememebering where on teh page you read something, or keeping track of how many times something happened.
iconic memory
sensory memory of visual stimuli that is quick: picture-image memory which lasts less than a few tenths of a second.
echoic memory
quick sensory memory of auditory stimuli: if attention is on smt else, sounds n word can still be reached 3-4 seconds after.
chunking
organizing itemrs into familiar, manegeable units which often occurs automatically: splitting a phone number into 3 sections)
mnemonics
memory aids, especially tehniques that use vivid imagery n organizational devices: people use excuse my dear aunt Sally to help remember PEMDAS in math
Hierarchies
putting info into catergories n subdivisions to help remember info: taking notes in outline from n putting themin hierachirs like living things→animals→insects and so on.
Shallow processing
encoding on based on structure or appereance of words: word sounds like writing their instead of there (elementary level)
Deep processing
encoding semantically (in a way related to meaning of words): meaning of words, the more meaningful→the more retention (best retention n remembering)
Noam Chomsky
Theory that explains universal grammar is why preeschool kids pick up language easily: all world languages share a common structure
Herman Ebbinghaus
studied recalling
the more you repeat a list, the les time is needed to relearn them on another day
Wolfgang kohler
Humans are not the only creatures to show insight (aha moment)
Chimps experiment w fruits
Elizabeth Loftus
proved memory recondolidation : memories can be altered before being stored again which causes us to think things happend when they didn’t
George Miller
discovered we can store around 7 pieces of info into short-term memory: phone nubers are usually 7 digits
Hippocampus
explicit memories ofr facts n episodes r processed in hippocampus n fed to other brain regions for storage
cerebelum (lil brain that controls balance)
froms n stores implicit memories created by clasicall conditionin: ppl w/ damaged cerebellums can’t develop some reflexes like blinking when someone blows in ther face
Basal Ganglia (brain structure involved in motor movement that makes forming procedure memories for skills easier)
receives input from cortex but doesnt send info back to the cortex to help awareness of procedural learning
Amygdala (2 sized lima bean-sized neural clusters linked to emotion)
emotional or traumatic events cause tunner vision : focus on attention n recall high priority info but forgets irrelelvant details
Semantic memory
refers to facts n general knowledge: geroge washignton was 1st president in usa
episodic memory
experienced events: i had a clown at my 5th bday party
memory consolidation
process wehre brain registers elemonts from experience like smell, feel, sound, locationbut then go to storage somewhere like old files
Infantile amnesia
conscious memory of our first 4 years is mostly blank
flashbulb memories
clear, long-term memory of an emotionally significant event: Americans remember wehre they were ehwn 9/11 happened
LTP- Long-term potentiation
process involving strengthening of synapses whcih speeds a cell’s firing potential which is a basis for learning memory
retrival cues
smells, tastes, etc…
priming
implicit memory effect where expose to stimulis influences response to later stimulus: seeing a poster of a missing child and then later when you see a child n adults simply tslking you think it might be kidnapping
dependant memory
what we learned in a physysiological state is better learned when remebered or recalled back in the same state: someone drunk recalls what they learned better when drunk again
context-dependant memory
stronger recall in the same environment in which original memory was formed: visiting childhood home causes old memories to come back
serial position effect
tendency to recall the last(recency effect) and first(primary effect) items in a list (last items are more remembered bc they are still in working memory like echoic info)
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
cant remember info from the past
proactive interference
prior leraning interrupts recall of new info: when putting a new password, the old passowrd makes the new one harder to remember
retroactive interference
new learning interrupts old info: someone sings the lyrics to a song but u can only remember the remix of it
encoding failure
no encoding effort→potential memories never from: trying to find a book that you never actually bought
storage decay
memories fade fast at first but then fades (if u dont use it, u lose it): we see a penny many times but cant recall the ac design of it
retrieval failure
even when store, some long-term info cant be accessed n causes u to forget: having a name on the tip of ur tongue but cant remember
forgetting curve
what ppl remember after a certain amount of time will be what they remember forever
motivated forgetting
memory systems censor info what we dont want to remember
how does misinformation, imaging, and source info influence memory construction
reconsolidation causes memories to be altered before being stored again, or the misinformation effect happens when people are wtold wrong info. Also imaging can create false memories n stimulate similar brain areas.
source amnesia
bad memory of how, when, or where info was learned or imagined: remembering gossip but not knowing where it came from
why is it not easy to know if we remeber things corruectly (3 reasons)
misinformation effect, source amnesia, forgetting curve
Cognition
mental activities associated w thinking, knowing, remembering n communicating info.
concepts
mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category: a crow is a birdier bird than a penguin even though they are both birds
creativity
ability to produce ideas that are both new n valuable
coherent thinking
the thought process that involves judging the frequency or probability of an event or hypothesis
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the best solution: sat tests look at level of one’s ability to learn
divergent thinking
creative tests that look at the ability to consider different options n to look in different ways: writing essays
components of creativity
expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment
expertise
good base of knowledge that can be used as building blocks
imaginative thinking skills
have the ability to see things in new ways, recognize patterns n make connections
venturesome personality
person looks for new experiences, takes risks, n perseveres when overcoming obstacles by being determined
intrinsic motivation
driven by interest, satisfaction, n challenge not external pleasure
creative environment
supports innovation team building n communication
algorithm
step by step procedures that guarantee a solution: following a recipe online to make a cake
heuristic
thinking in shortcuts: being in traffic so u take another way
insight
aha moment, sudden realization to a solution for a problem: re-reading a math problem n understanding it
confirmation bias
leads us to seek evidence for our ideas instead of against them: ignoring info that challenges personal beliefs
fixation
inability to come to a new perspective: in my debate class i refused to listen to the other group’s argument
mental set
tendency to approach problems w the same mindset as what worked before: I studied the night before the last test n got an A so ill do it again next time.
intuition
fast n automatic unreasoned feelings n thoughts
representative heuristic
judging smt intuitively by comparing it to a prototype: a guy who is slim, short n likes to read is more likely to become a professor than an truck driver.
availability heuristic
how common an event is based on its mental availability or how vivid it is, recent or different: ppl are more scared of terrorists than homicides bc 9/11 is more famous
overconfidence
tendecy to be more confident than correct
belief perseverance
tendency to cling on to beliefs even if there is proof otherwise: politics overrode facts once by saying inflation rose but it ac dropped
framing
how we present an issue to persuade or convince: ppl are more supportive of gun safety than gun control bc of wording
3 powers of intuition
actual knowledge we store unconsciously, adaptive so it causes quick reactions, makes use of stuff we are not processing.
phonemes
sound units in language: THAT has phenonems th, ah, and t.
morphemes
smallest language units that carry meaning: word readers has 3 (action, person n means plural)
grammar
language’s set of rules that help ppl communicate
universal grammar
all human languages have nouns, verns, n adjectives as grammar building blocks
receptive language
babie’s ability to understand what’s said to n about them or recognize whats being said to them (listening n reading)
productive language
babie’s ability to produce words n communicate (speaking n writing)
babbling stage
yapper, makes osund of vowels (4 months)
One word stage
learn that sounds carry meaning n start to communicate meaning (1st bday)
2 word stage
speech development means schils speaks mostly in 2-word statements (by 2nd bday)
telegraphic speech
early speech stage where child speaks like telegram: “go car” or “want juice” (2 years old)
critical period of language
later than 2-3 years the capacity of the brain causes a rush n by age 7 if they are not exposed to a language they lose the ability to master it
can deaf ppl learn language
yes
aphasia
impairment of langauge caused by left hemisphere damage on Broca’s area(imparing speaking) or wernicke’s area(impairing understanding)
brocas area
control language expressions (left hemisphere, frontal lobe) n directs muslce movements involved in speech
wernicke’s area
brain involved in language understanding n expressions:left temporal lobe
linguistic determination
whorf’s hypothesis that lnaguge controls the way we think n interpret the world
linguistic influence
idea that lnaguge affects thought :arabic readers think of images from left to right
bilingual advantage
better at being social bc thay can shift between perspectives
2 benefits in thinking in images
achieve academic goals (looking at notees), increased skills when mentally practicing upcoming events
maturation
orderly sequence of bio growth that changes behavior, basic course of development
Note 
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