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The international system is __________, meaning there is no overarching authority to enforce global laws.
anarchic
Wars result from __________, resource competition, and strategic calculations.
power struggles
Factors such as colonial history, economic policies, natural resources, and __________ play a role in state wealth disparities.
governance
Institutions like the United Nations (UN) provide mechanisms for __________ and cooperation.
conflict resolution
A __________ is a set of rules that structure interactions between actors.
institution
The __________ model of war seeks to explain why wars persist despite potential agreements that all sides would prefer.
bargaining
Civil wars are characterized by armed conflict between organized actors within a __________.
state
The term __________ refers to the redistribution of benefits where one actor's gain comes at the expense of another.
bargaining
Key historical examples of alliances include the __________ Powers and the __________ Powers during World War I.
Allied; Central
The definition of __________ is the use or threatened use of violence against noncombatant targets by individuals or nonstate groups for political ends.
terrorism
States may engage in __________ wars to prevent rising powers from gaining strength.
preventive
The primary actors in civil wars face challenges such as __________ limitations, organizational weaknesses, and lack formal standing.
resource
The ability of __________ to maintain power while responding to key influencers is a central theme in domestic politics and war.
leaders
The phenomenon of __________ involves using violence to inspire mass rebellion or revolution.
propaganda of the deed
A __________ offers shared security measures to its member states if under attack.
defensive alliance
Bargaining
Gains for one actor come at a loss to another
Cooperation
At least one actor benefits without harming others.
Institutions
Sets of rules that structure interactions, including organizations, norms, and ideas.
International: Interaction between ________ ________ (e.g., the United Nations).
Domestic: Policy-making processes ________ a state (e.g., elections).
Transnational: Groups spanning ______ _______ influencing politics (e.g., Meta, ISIS).
state representatives, within, multiple states
Realism - assumptions
States are primary actors.
The world is anarchic with no central authority.
Realism - Implications
States prioritize security and military power.
Cooperation is short-lived, and conflict is inevitable.
Liberalism - Assumptions
Multiple actors, including domestic and international NGOs, matter.
Liberalism - Implications
Natural opportunities for cooperation exist.
Democracies and international institutions promote peace and cooperation.
Constructivism - Assumptions
Interests are shaped by identity, culture, and beliefs, not just material factors.
Constructivism - Implications
Ideas and norms influence political actions.
Transnational actors play a key role in shaping the rules.
What defined the Age of Mercantilism (1400s-1500s)?
Imperial governments used military power to enrich themselves. Trade was seen as a zero-sum game. Heavy regulation restricted colonial trade and promoted monopolies.
What sparked global exploration during the Age of Mercantilism?
Columbus and other explorers in 1492 initiated global exploration and colonization.
What was the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)?
Divided the world between Portugal and Spain, igniting struggles for global dominance.
Why was the Peace of Westphalia (1648) significant?
It ended religious wars, recognized state sovereignty, and established state borders.
What made Britain ascendant between 1648-1815?
Key events included the Seven Years’ War (1756-63) and Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo (1815).
What characterized Pax Britannica (1815-1914)?
Britain's dominance fostered peace among European powers and expanded free trade.
What triggered World War I?
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914.
When did World War I end?
November 11, 1918, after 15 million deaths and massive financial costs.
What followed the Treaty of Versailles (1918-1939)?
Economic ruin in Germany, rise of fascism and socialism, and the 1929 Great Depression.
What event marked the start of World War II?
Germany's invasion of Poland in September 1939.
What ended World War II?
Japan surrendered in August 1945 after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
What defined the Cold War (1945-1991)?
US vs. USSR rivalry, NATO vs. Warsaw Pact, and key events like the Cuban Missile Crisis.
What happened in 1989 and 1991 during the Cold War?
The Berlin Wall fell (1989), and the USSR dissolved (1991).
What characterized Pax Americana (1991-Today)?
US dominance, challenges like 9/11, the Global Financial Crisis, and China’s rise.
Modern global issues (post-2008)?
Anti-globalization, far-right movements, COVID-19, and renewed Russian aggression.
What triggered the 2003 Iraq War (Timeline - Part 1)?
August 2, 1990: Iraq invades Kuwait.
January 1991: Operation Desert Storm.
Mnemonic: K-D Storm — Kuwait invasion, Desert Storm follows.
What triggered the 2003 Iraq War (Timeline - Part 2)?
April 3, 1991: UN Resolution 687 (WMD removal).
2002: Bush accuses Iraq of violating Resolution 687.
Mnemonic: 6-8-7? Too Late for Heaven (2002) — Iraq’s alleged WMDs still unresolved.
What triggered the 2003 Iraq War (Timeline - Part 3)?
March 17, 2003: Bush gives Saddam a 48-hour ultimatum.
March 20, 2003: U.S. and coalition invade Iraq.
Mnemonic: "Ultimatum → Invasion" — the war starts three days after the warning.
Why did the U.S. engage Iraq?
Alleged WMD possession and Saddam Hussein's refusal to comply with UN resolutions.
Why did Saddam Hussein refuse to back down?
To maintain power and avoid showing weakness domestically or internationally.
Key actors in world politics (Part 1)
States: Sovereign actors.
Politicians: Motivated by ideology or reelection.
Mnemonic: S-P (State-Politician) — S is big, P is personal (power).
Key actors in world politics (Part 2)
Classes/Firms: Seek material gain.
Bureaucracies: Seek influence and policy preferences.
Mnemonic: C-B (Cash and Bureaucrats) — one wants money, the other control.
Key actors in world politics (Part 3)
International Organizations: Blend member preferences (e.g., UN).
NGOs: Pursue ideological or policy goals (e.g., Amnesty International).
Mnemonic: I-N (Institutions and NGOs) — formal vs grassroots.
What is cooperation in world politics?
Interactions that improve at least one actor’s position without worsening another’s.
What is bargaining in world politics?
Interaction where one actor benefits at another's expense (zero-sum interactions).
Types of cooperation (Coordination)
Actors benefit by making the same choice.
Example: Drivers avoiding collisions by swerving the same way.
Types of cooperation (Collaboration)
Actors gain by working together but may defect.
Example: Cold War arms race.
What are obstacles to cooperation?
Collective Action Problems: Free-riding (e.g., voter apathy).
Ringelmann Effect: Effort declines in larger groups.
Factors enhancing cooperation (Part 1)
Group Composition: Smaller groups communicate better.
Iteration: Repeated interactions build trust.
Factors enhancing cooperation (Part 2)
Linkage: Connecting issues fosters cooperation.
Information Sharing: Reduces uncertainty and misperception.
Bargaining strategies (Part 1)
Coercion: Imposing costs to induce behavior change (threats).
Outside Options: Better alternatives provide leverage.
Bargaining strategies (Part 2)
Agenda Setting: Controlling choices and framing discussions (e.g., Colin Powell at the UN).
What are the functions of institutions in world politics?
Set behavioral standards.
Verify compliance.
Reduce decision-making costs.
Resolve disputes.
Mnemonic: "Standards Verify Costs Disputes"
What is the definition of war?
War involves the organized use of military force by at least two parties, reaching a minimum threshold of severity.
What are types of war?
Interstate War: Main actors are states.
Civil/Intrastate War: Main actors are within a state.
What is a historical fact about wars since 1816?
96 interstate wars and 442 civil wars
40 million deaths in the 20th century
What are the four main interests states fight over?
Territory: Material, strategic, or symbolic value (e.g., Kashmir).
Policies: Disputes over nuclear programs or ethnic cleansing (e.g., Iraq).
Regime Type: Leadership disputes (e.g., U.S. toppling Saddam).
Relative Power: Preventing adversaries from becoming too powerful (e.g., Korean War).
Mnemonic: T-P-R-P (Territory, Policy, Regime, Power)
What does Realism say about war?
War results from an anarchic international system and security dilemmas.
What is the problem with the Realist explanation of war?
It overlooks the immense costliness of war.
What role do misperceptions play in war?
Decision-makers miscalculate the success or costs of war.
What is the problem with focusing on misperceptions?
Mistakes are frequent but do not always cause wars.
What role does domestic politics play in war?
Actors within states push for wars to pursue their interests.
What does the bargaining model of war explain?
It shows how bargaining failures, despite the high costs, lead to wars.
What is the inefficiency puzzle of war?
War is incredibly costly.
There should always be deals preferable to war.
What factors create a bargaining range?
Expected outcomes of war
Costs of war
What is crisis bargaining?
Bargaining under the threat of war in an anarchic system.
What is coercive diplomacy?
Using threats to demand specific actions (e.g., Cuban Missile Crisis).
Why does incomplete information cause war?
States lack knowledge of each other's capabilities and resolve.
Private information creates uncertainty.
What are strategies to increase credibility during crisis bargaining?
Brinksmanship: Taking risks to force backdowns.
Tying Hands: Making threats costly to abandon.
Paying for Power: Public military mobilizations.
Mnemonic: B-T-P (Brink, Tie, Pay)
Example of brinksmanship in war?
Cuban Missile Crisis, where near-nuclear war ensued.
What is the inefficiency puzzle of war?
Wars are costly, so there should theoretically always be a preferable negotiated agreement.
What framework explains why wars still happen despite potential agreements?
The bargaining model of war
What are the three rationalist explanations for war?
Incomplete Information
Commitment Problems
Issue Indivisibility
Mnemonic: I-C-I (Information, Commitment, Indivisibility)
Why does incomplete information cause war?
States have private information about capabilities and resolve.
They misrepresent positions to gain better deals.
What are methods to increase credibility in crisis bargaining?
Brinksmanship: Taking risks to force adversaries to back down
Tying Hands: Making threats costly to abandon
Paying for Power: Public military mobilization
Mnemonic: B-T-P (Brink, Tie, Pay)
What risk does increasing credibility pose?
It can inadvertently escalate the likelihood of war.
Why do commitment problems cause war?
Difficulty in making credible promises not to revise agreements later
What are sources of commitment problems?
Bargaining Over Future Power: Goods increase future bargaining power (e.g., South China Sea)
Preventing Power Shifts: Preventive wars stop rising powers (e.g., Russo-Japanese War)
Preempting Imminent Attack: Fear of first-strike advantage (e.g., Six-Day War)
Mnemonic: B-P-P (Bargain, Prevent, Preempt)
Example of preventive war?
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
Example of preemptive war?
Six-Day War (1967)
What is issue indivisibility? What is an example of issue indivisibility?
A good that loses value if divided, creating "all-or-nothing" bargaining. Religious significance of Jerusalem
What are possible solutions to issue indivisibility?
Linkages to other issues
Shared control arrangements
What factors determine how wars end?
War length
Manner of termination (negotiated vs. military victory)
How does incomplete information affect war duration?
Wars end sooner when states learn enough about each other's capabilities.
How do commitment problems affect war duration?
Wars last longer and often end with military victory.
What trends have emerged in warfare since 1945?
Fewer interstate wars
Decline in territorial conflicts
Why have territorial conflicts declined?
Decreased value of territory
Rise of the territorial integrity norm
Nuclear weapons and economic interdependence
What new forms of conflict have emerged?
Cyber and drone warfare
Why is understanding war still important?
Civil wars persist
Global disputes (e.g., South China Sea) could escalate
Which key actors inside the state have incentives for war?
Politicians: Reelection, ideology, policy goals (e.g., George W. Bush, Saddam Hussein)
Firms: Material well-being, profits (e.g., defense contractors, Halliburton)
Bureaucracies: Larger budgets, influence (e.g., State Dept., Dept. of Defense)
Mnemonic: P-F-B (Politicians, Firms, Bureaucracies)
What is the difference between national and particularistic interests?
National Interests: Benefit the whole state (e.g., security, power)
Particularistic Interests: Benefit specific groups (e.g., oil company profits)
Who are the primary decision-makers in war decisions?
Leaders controlling foreign policy decisions
What is the "rally effect" during international crises?
Public becomes more supportive of government
Example: George W. Bush's approval after 9/11
Effects: Increased patriotism, reduced dissent, distraction from domestic issues
What is the "diversionary incentive"?
Leaders may create international crises to distract from domestic problems
Example: Clinton during the Lewinsky scandal (Operation Infinite Reach)
What warning did President Eisenhower give about the military-industrial complex?
He warned about the alliance between military leaders and industries benefiting from war (January 17, 1961)
