Anatomy Exam #1

Describe the three subdivisions of anatomy and the two subdivisions of physiology

Anatomy

• gross- study large visible structures

• developmental- studies anatomical and physiological development

throughout life

• microscopic- studies structures too small to see with the naked eye

Physiology

• cellular

• molecular

how body is dependent on chemical reactions in the cell

Describe the principle of complementarity of structure and function and explain how it relates to human anatomy and physiology

shape dictates function

• the shape of something dictates what you can do with it

• the shape of your teeth dictate chewing food, this is apart of everything in the human body

Describe the humans bodys structural organization levels from smallest to largest

chemical level→cellular level→tissue level→organ level→organ system level→organismal level

Describe the eight functions necessary for life

my mom reads my emails really good

• maintaining boundaries- keeping things where they belong, digestive enzymes not getting out etc.

• movement- skeletal system must be able to move

• responsiveness digestion- breaking down+absorbing food

• metabolism- chemical reactions, breaking stuff down to keep you alive

• excretion- get rid of waste

• reproduction- in order to keep species around

• growth- development to survive, increase size of body+organism

Describe the five survival needs of humans

• nutrients

  • lipids, carbs, minerals, proteins, vitamins

• oxygen

  • essential for release of energy from foods

• water

  • life doesn’t exist without it

  • required for chemical reactions

  • needed for fluid base for secretions+excretions

• Body temperature

  • needed for chemical reactions, needs to stay at 37 degrees Celsius

• Appropriate atmospheric pressure

  • specific pressure of air needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs

Describe homeostasis and explain its importance to human health and disease

the maintenance of relative stability internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment

• keeping the chemical reactions in your body consistent, needed for your body to adapt to constant change

Describe negative feedback; include an example in your answer

• you go back and fourth to keep homeostasis

• ex. maintaining blood sugar levels

• reacts to stimulus

Describe positive feedback, include an example in your answer

• goes in one directions until something is done

• ex child birth

  • enhances or exaggerates stimuli

Describe anatomical position and explain why it is important for medical professionals

• you’re standing upright, feet slightly apart, hands to sides, palms facing forward, thumbs pointing away

• its a baseline because someone’s left and right can be different from someone elses so this keeps it all the same

Using examples explain the following: Anterior/posterior, Superior/inferior, Lateral/medial, proximal/distal, superficial/deep

superior- towards head

inferior- towards feet

anterior- front

posterior- back

Medial- middle

lateral-sides

proximal-close to the point of attachment of the body

distal- further away from point of attachment

superficial- on skin

deep- in skin

Describe how the three plains divide the body

sagittal plane- divides vertically (left and right)

frontal- divides perfectly on midline

Transverse- divides at a 90 degree angle from midline (up and down )

Describe the subdivisions of the dorsal and ventral cavities

Dorsal

• cranial cavity- brain

• vertebral cavity - spinal cord

Ventral

• thoracic- heart lungs

Abdominal pelvic'

• abdominal cavity- stomach intestines spleen liver

• pelvic cavity bladder

Describe the nine abdominopelvic regions

• ONLY NEED 1 EX. OF EACH

• right hypochondriac region

  • liver, gall bladder, right kidney

• epigastric region

  • stomach, liver, pancreas, right and left kidneys

• left hypochondriac region

  • stomach, liver, left kidney, spleen

• right lumbar region

  • liver, small intestines, ascending colon, right kidney

• umbilical region

  • stomach, pancreas, small intestines, transverse colon

• left lumbar region

  • small intestines, descending colon, left kidney

• right iliac region

  • small intestines, appendix, cecum, and ascending colon

• Hypogastric

  • small intestines, sigmoid colon, bladder

• Left iliac region

  • small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid colon

Little snakes sleep (liver, stomach, spleen)

kids in kitchen (right kidney, small intestine, left kidney)

Apples become sweet (appendix, bladder, siqmoid colon)

Describe matter and explain the three different forms of it

Something that has mass + occupies space

• solid

• liquid

• gas

Describe kinetic and potential energy and explain the four different forms of energy

kinetic

• energy in action

• something in motion

potential

• stored energy

chemical energy

• stores in bonds of chemical substances

electrical

• results from movements of charged particles

mechanical

• directly involved in moving matter

radiant

• travels in waves

• heat/light

Describe an element and explain the importance of the four most common elements found in humans

• substances you cant break down chemically

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen

• 96% of the human body

• found in organic molecules

Describe trace elements and explain their importance to humans

• very important chemical elements that are needed in extremely small quantities

• important for enzyme activation, oxygen transport, metabolic control, immune system, and structure

Describe the structure of an atom including electron orbital and the location and charge of the primary components

• protons

  • carry positive charge

  • add weight

• neutrons

  • no charge

  • also add weight

• electrons

  • negative charge

  • so tiny, no weight

Describe what isotopes and radioisotopes are and explain why they are biologically useful

isotopes- different # of neutrons than normal

radioisotopes

• isotopes that decompose to more stable forms

• as isotopes decays subatomic particles release energy

-can be a valuable tool for biology research and medicine

Describe the differences between molecules and compounds

molecules- general term for 2 or more atoms bonded together

compounds- specific molecule that has 2 or more different elements bonded together

Describe three basic types of mixtures

Solution

• homogenous mixtures

• solvent- greatest amount

• solute

Colloids

• heterogenous mixtures

• sometimes undergo sol-gel

Suspensions

• heterogenous mixtures

• ex. water and sand

• large visible solutes that don’t settle out

Describe the three ways that the concentration of a solution can be determined

• measuring percentage of the solute in total solution

• milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)

• molarity- number of moles of solute per liter

  • one mole of compound= molecular weight

Describe the three differences between mixtures and compounds

• mixtures can be separated by physical means

• mixtures don’t involve any chemical bonding between components

• Mixtures can be heterogeneous or homogeneous

Describe the role of electrons in chemical bonding, including electron and valence shells

• They determine whether a chemical reaction will take place and if so, what type of chemical bond is formed

Electrons can occupy areas around nucleus called electron shells

• Outermost electron shell is called valence shell

– Electrons in valence shell have the most potential energy because they are farthest

from nucleus

– These are electrons that are involved in chemical reactions

Describe the octet rule and explain why elements do not exist in a pure form in nature

Atoms desire to have 8 electrons in valence shell

• once 8 electrons is reached they don’t want to react anymore and become stable

• there is no elements in pure form in nature because natural elements don’t have 8 electrons in valence shell therefore they react and bond with other elements

Describe the 4 types of chemical bonds, include an example of each

• ionic (weakest)

  • either give up or accept electrons

  • become ions

• Polar Covalent bonds

  • formed when sharing 2 or more electrons

  • strongest bonds

  • Polar (share electrons equally)

• Non polar covalent bonds

  • formed when sharing 2 or more electrons

  • strongest bonds

  • non-polar (share electrons unequally)

• hydrogen bonding

  • attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and electronegative atom of another molecule

  • weak magnetic attraction

Describe synthesis, decomposition, exchange, and redox reactions

decomposition

• breakdown

• involve catabolic reactions

exchange

• displacement reactions- synthesis and decomposition

• bonds made+broken

redox reactions

• moving electrons

• atoms reduced when they gain electrons and oxidized when they lose electrons

Describe exergonic and endergonic reactions, give an example of each

exergonic- chemical reactions where net overall release of energy

ex. cellular respiration

endergonic- result in a net absorption of energy

ex. photosynthesis

Describe the 5 properties of water that make it an important compound for humans

high heat capacity

• ability to absorb and release heat

• prevents sudden change of temp

high heat of vaporization

• evaporation requires large amounts of heat

• useful cooling mechanism (sweating)

polar solvent properties

• dissolves and dissociates ionic substances

• forms water layers around charged molecules

• bodys major transport medium

reactivity

• neccasary for hydrolysis + dehydration synthesis reactions

cushioning

• protects certain organs from physical trauma

Describe salts and explain their importance to human physiology

• ionic components that dissociate into seperate ions in water

• Seperates into cations+anions

• all ions called electrolytes

  • can conduct electrical currents in solution

• ionic balance is vital for homeostasis

Describe the pH scale, including the differences between acids, bases, and neutral substances

• acid base concentration

• pH scale- measure of hydrogen ion concentration

• the more hydrogen ions→ more acidic

• below 7 acidic, neutral 7, more than 7 basic

Acids- proton donors, release hydrogen ions

bases- proton acceptors, completely dissociate, when base dissolves releases hydrogen

neutralization- acids+bases mixed together

Describe how a buffer can regulate pH explain the importance of them in a biological system

• buffers help maintain pH range

  • can release/bind hydrogen ions based on needs

• convert strong acids bases into weak ones

• in healthy individuals it keeps your pH range for your body to work it’s best

Describe how dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions make or break chemical compounds

polymers are synthesized by dehydration synthesis

• removing of water molecule at the site of bond formation

oppositely hydrolysis reactions break the polymers down

• adding water molecule to the monomers

Describe the composition and functions of the three different types of carbohydrates

• monosaccharides- one single, simple sugar

• disaccharide- double sugars, too large to pass through cell membrane

• polysaccharides- polymers of monosaccharides, formed by dehydration synthesis

Describe the composition and functions of the four different types of lipids including the differences between saturated and unsaturated fats

• triglycerides

  • fats when solid, oil when liquid

  • composed of 3 fatty acid chains

  • energy storage, insulation, protection

  Saturated fats- unhealthy, sticky

  unsaturated fats, healthy, not sticky because of bend

  phospholipids

  • modified triglyceride

  • head and tail region have different properties

Describe the composition and functions of the six types of proteins

comprise 20-30% of cell mass

have most varied function of any molecules

• structural

  • mechanical support

• enzyme

  • catalysis, biochemical reaction in body

• transport protein

  • moving substances

• contractile

  • movement

• communication

  • transmitting signals between cells

• Defensive

  • protect against disease

Some eggs travel, cats communicate defensively

Describe the 4 levels of protein structure

primary- sequence of amino acids

secondary- how primary amino acids interact with each other, alpha helix coils to resemble a spring, beta pleated sheets resemble an accordion

tertiary- 2 or more proteins fold into each other

quaternary structure- how 2 or more polypeptide chains with their own tertiary structure come together to form functional protein

Describe the two categories of protein shape

• Fibrous- structural proteins

  • strandlike, water-insoluble, stable

  • most have tertiary/quaternary structure

  • provide mechanical support+ strength

  • ex. keratin or collagen

• Globular

  • Compact, spherical, water-soluble, and sensitive to environmental changes

  • Tertiary or quaternary structure

  • Specific active sites

• Examples: antibodies, hormones,

Describe protein, denaturation, and explain the consequences of it occuring

Denaturation- protein loses 3d shape

• caused by decreased pH or increased temp.

usually reversible if normal conditions restored

irreversible if changes are extreme

• ex. cant uncook an egg

Describe holoenzymes, apoenzymes, coenzymes, and cofactors and explain their importance

holoenzyme- most functional enzymes

• 2 portions

apoezyme- protein

cofactor- metal ion or coenzyme

those two make an active sight

apoenzyme holds into a 3d shape but cant function so it binds to cofactor which brings a positive charge

Describe the induced fit model of enzyme substrate interactions and explain the role of enzymes in biological systems

• substrate binds at active site, which forms a temporary enzyme- substrate complex

• the E-S complex undergoes interal rearrangements that form the product

• the enzyme releases the product of reaction

this process is important because it helps the enzyme lower activation energy and speed up reactions

Describe the composition and functions of the two types of nucleic acids

DNA

• made of nucleotides

• double stranded

• cells use for genetic storage

• instructions for anything an organism could make

RNA

• made of nnucleotides

• information transfer

• single stranded

• temporary

• carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis

• mRNA, tRNA,rRNA

Describe the structure and function of ATP

• modified nucleotide used for energy

• nitrogen base, sugar, phosphate group makes nucleotide + phosphate groups

• the more phospate groups determines AMP,ADP or ATP

• ATP- adenosine triphosphate