PDHPE Core 2 factors affecting performance

Aerobic training

It uses the Aerobic system as main source of energy.

Benefits: increased stamina and fitness.

Continuous training

Aerobic exercising at a moderate to high level, with no rests. e.g. cycling, jogging

Benefits: Enhanced performance, improves heart health.

Fartlek training

Participants vary their speed and terrain engaging both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. e.g. running one minute at a faster effort, then three minutes at an easy effort.

beneficial for pre-season training

Aerobic interval training

Involves alternating sessions of work and recovery. e.g. 5 minute hard run followed by a 5 minute walk.

Benefits: burns more calories and fats

Circuit training

Participants move from one activity to the next.

Develops aerobic capacity and has the potential to make large improvements in strength, endurance, flexibility, skill and coordination.

anaerobic training

Uses high intensity work coupled with limited recovery to develop systems of energy that function in the absence of oxygen.

Benefits: increases strength

Anaerobic interval training

Sprint training over short distances using maximal effort. e.g. sprint intervals, hills sprints.

Benefits: strengthens bones.

Flexibility training

Where we focus on the length of the muscle. It is essential to prevent injury and better recovery and improve coordination between muscle groups.

Static stretching

The muscle is slowly stretched to a position (end point/limit) which is held for about 30 seconds.

e.g. Cobra pose, Overhead tricep stretch.

Ballistic stretching

Involves repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing to gain extra strength.

e.g. Leg swings, toe touches.

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

Involves lengthening a muscle against a resistance.

e.g. contract - relax, Hold - relax

Dynamic stretching

- Uses movement speed together with momentum

- attempts to imitate many of the movements experienced in a game

- e.g. leg swings, butt kicks

strength training

contracting muscles against resistance to enhance muscle hypertrophy.

Free weights

weights are used to develop all muscles in a group at the same time. e.g. use of barbells, dumbbells, and hand weights.

fixed weights

have a fixed path and target certain muscles. e.g. shoulder press, leg extensions

resistance training

the use of resistance to muscular contraction to build strength e.g. resistance bands, push ups

Isometric strength program

Participants develop strength by applying a resistance and using exercises in which muscle length doesn't change.

e.g. Plank, wall sit.

progressive overload principle

Gains in fitness (adaptations) occur only when the training load is greater than normal and is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur.

e.g. Gradually increasing the amount of weight you lift

specificity principle

The effects of a training session are specifically related to the manner in which the program is conducted.

e.g. A sprinter should train for sprinting not a marathon.

e.g. Weightlifter using free weights to train specific muscle groups.

Reversibility Principle

The effects of training programs are reversible.

e.g. a marathon runner who takes 3 months off due to a knee injury

Variety principle

Ensuring training sessions use multiple training types and methods, as well as exercise in these methods.

e.g. shuttle runs, repeated tackling for 1 min, followed by 2 min rest.

Training thresholds principle

Refers to a specific point that, when passed takes the person to a new level.

e.g. running, cycling

Warm up/Cool down Principle

Essential components of every training session.

e.g. lunges, Butt kicks, High knees

Resting heart rate

Is the number of contractions your heart makes in 1 minute when at rest

Heart Rate Measurement

The trained athlete has a lower resting heart rate than the untrained athlete – due to efficiency of the cardiovascular system, and particularly a higher stroke volume.

Stroke volume

Is the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle during a contraction. It is measured in mL/beat.

cardiac output

Is the volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute. It is determined by multiplying heart rate and stroke volume.

oxygen uptake

Is the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered (V02). Is the amount of oxygen can use in 1 minute.

Lung Capacity

The amount of air the lungs can hold.

Haemoglobin level

Is the protein part of the red blood cells that carries oxygen.

Increase through: walking, cycling.

Muscle Hypertrophy

Refers to muscle growth together with an increase in size of muscle cells.

e.g. Boxing, weightlifting.

slow twitch fibers

contract slowly and for long periods of times. They are recruited for endurance-type activities e.g. marathons. (Aerobic system)

Fast twitch fibres

Reach peak tension quickly and requited for power and explosive movements e.g. throwing and lifting. (Anaerobic system)

Motivation

is an internal State that activates, directs and Sustains behaviour towards achieving a Particulan goal. Motivation is a desire or want that energizes and directs goal oriented behaviour

Positive motivation

occurs When an individuals Performance is driven by Previous reinforcing behaviors. relies on continual self-reinforcement and/or reinforcement by others such as the coach, family, friends, spectators and media. exanples include: Raising teamwork, expressing gratitude, incentives.

negative motivation

Is characterized by an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing to expectations. e.g. fear of failure, punishment, self criticism.

intrinsic motivation

Is motivation that comes from within the individual. It is a self propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a task or activity and they enjoy learning and performing the movements. e.g. passion, enjoyment, challenge

extrinsic motivation

is motivation that comes from sources outside a person such as parents and coaches. It tends to have an outcome or ego orientation. e.g. praise, rewards, punishments

Anxiety

is predominantly a psychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation percieved to be potentially threatning. (It is Physchological)

trait anxiety

refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual. it is evident in how we respond to daily situations

state anxiety

is more specific, this type of anxiety is characterized by a state of heightened emotions that develop in response to fear or danger

sources of stress

stress is a non specific response of the body to a deman placed on it. it is characterized by increased blood supply to skeletal muscles, more oxygen to the lungs

Optimum arousal

refers to the ideal level of arousal that will result in optimal performance.

arousal

a specific level of anxiety and can be experienced prior to and during performance. (It is psycholgical)

Concentration/attention skills

The ability to focus on the task at hand. can be improved by: blocking out distractions and using positive self-talk

Mental rehersal

Is the technique of picturing the performance or skill before executing it. it increases the minds familiarty with the desired motion.

Relaxation techniques

A series of techniques that seek to control the body's response to stress, Techniques include: progressive muscular relaxation, mental relaxation, meditation.

Goal setting

gives athletes something to work towards and are useful in empowering athletes, giving them an opportunity to realise their aspirations, and enhance their focus, direction, and perseverance. include: Short term, long term, behavioural, performance.

Nutritional considerations

training programs designed to improve performance musy be supported by solid nutritional practices. As different foods have differinh amounys of energy, the types of food consumer prior to competition affects the quantity of energy available.

pre performance

is the food consumed prior to activity and is only useful if digested and its energy and nutrients and made available to where they are required in the body. nutritional strategies include: type of food, amount of food, when to eat, hydration, carbohydrate loading.

During performance

in endurance events, the need for carbohydrate and electrolyte replacement depends on intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type and individual sweat rates. considerations include: carbohydrate supplementation, glycogen supplementation, hydrate.

post performance

an athlete should aim to return the body to its pre event state asap. Best achieved through refuelling and rehydration immediatly and continue for 8-12 hours following the perfomrance.

Supplementation

is any addition to an athletes regular diet that aims to achieve a particular nutritional goal. can benefit general well being, spoerting performance or can have negeative consequences

vitamins and minerals

help the body use energy nutrients, assist functions such as energy release, metabolic regulation and tissue building.

negatives - high amounts of protein can increase calcium excreted, can have high fat content.

Protein

is required for growth and repair of musch tissue also secondary energy source. supplements can be natural or synthetic, in form of powder, liquid or solid.

negatives - high amounts of protein can increase calcium excreted, can have high fat content.

Caffeine

is used to improve cognitive processes, such as alertness, concentration, 'clear headness', improved memory and reasonings. In endurance performances, caffeine mobilises fat stores in the body and converts them into free fatty acids, making them a useable source of energy.

negatives - weight gain, excess stress on bladder and kidneys.

creatine

comes from production by body cells and through food intake, particulary meat. It is converted into CP which is used for the resynthesis of ATP. it cannot be stored in the body.

Negatives - weight gain, excess stress on bladder and kineys.

Recovery strategies

aim to restore athletes psychological and physiological function.

physiological strategies

focus on removal of metabolic by-products and replacement of fluid losy and energy stores.

physiological strategies Cool down

purpose is to gradually reduce heart rate, body temp and metabolism to the pre-exercise state. proper cool down also assists in the removal of waste products including lactic acid.

physiological strategies hydration

replaces lost fluids and energy rich nutrients. fruit juices, milk, and gatorade are encouraged because of the potential to replace a full range of nutrients including carbs, vitamins and potassium.

physiological strategies food

athltetes need to replenish depleted glycogen and blood sugar in the first 30 mins to 2hrs following exercise. A high carbohydrate diet that is balanced is recommened e.g. fruit juices, rice, pasta, bread, milk, yoghurt, and fruit.

Neural strategies

Aims to relax muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high intensity exercise.

Neural strategies hydrotherapy

the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery. water provides support for movements, and elimnates jarring and straining movements. Methods involve using steam rooms, spas, underwater massage.

Tissue damage strategies

- Cryotherapy: involves the use of cooling. e.g. ice is used to slow down the tissue inflammatory proccess and prevents the build up of waste. methods include ice baths, which include an immersion of affected body parts in a bath of ice for a short period of time.

Psychological strategies

- Relaxation: techniques that target both the body and mind. relexation techniques reduce tension. Specialised psychological techniques include progressive muscular relaxation, meditation, visualisation, centred breathing and positive self talk

Cognitive

This stage refers to the mental processing of information, thinking and understanding. Movements are slow, inconsistent and inefficient. Frequent errors occur, and learners rely on trial amd error. Requires external feedback (coach, teacher, video analaysis.)

Associative

This stage is when the athlete has progressed from thinking about what they are doing to thinking how they are doing to thinking how they do the skill. Movements become more fluid, accurate, and efficient. increased consistency and coordination.

Autonomous

This stage is characterized by the ability to automatically execute the skill. High accuracy, consistency, and efficiency in movements. greater decision making and tactical awareness, able to self correct errors and refine technique with intrinsic feedback.

Characteristics of the learner

refer to the indivdual factors that influence how a person acquires and develops skills. These characteristics impact the speed, effectiveness, and style of learning.

Personality

Refers to an individuals emotional, mental, and behavioural traits that affect their approach to learning.

Impact on learning:

- Determines motivation, attitude, and persistance in skill acquisition

- Positive traits: (confidence, resilience, patience) enhance learning

- negative traits: (anxiety, lack of focus) can hinder progress

e.g. A shy or nervous leaner may take longer to develop skills in a team sport due to fear of making mistakes

Heredity

Refers to the genetic traits inherited from parents that influence physical and cognitive abilities.

Impact on learning:

- Some leaners have a natural advantage due to genetic traits

- factors include height, muscle fiber type, flexibility, coordination, and reaction time

e.g. A person with a high percentage of fast twitch muscle fibres may excell in sprinting

Confidence

Is a learners belief in their ability to perform a skill successfully.

Impact on learning:

- higher confidence leads to greater motivation, risk taking, and persistance

- Low confidence can result in hesitation and avoidance of challenges

- Confidence builds with positive experiences and success

e.g. A confident soccer player is more likely to attempt a penalty kick under pressure

Prior experience

Refers to previous exposure to similiar skills or activities, which can influence learning.

Impact on learning:

- learning a new skill if it shares similiarities with a previously leanerd skill (positive transfer)

- some experiences can interfere with learning if habits conflict (negative transfer)

e.g. A basketball player may find it easier to lean netball due to similiar passing and footwork techniques

Ability

Refers to a persons natural talent and skill level in performing physical and cognitive tasks.

Impact on learning:

- High ability learners pick up skills faster and refine them more easily

- those with lower natual ability may require more practice and coaching

- Physical and mental abilities (e.g. coordination, reaction time, decision making) impact performance

e.g. A child with good hand eye coordination may excel in tennis at an early age

Learning Environment

refers to everything outside the learner and enahnces the skill itself e.g. peers, weather, coaches. It comprises of 4 areas nature of the skill, performance elements, practice methods, and feedback.

The nature of the skill

divided into 9 areas:

1. open skills

2. closed skills

3. gross motor skills

4. fine motor skills

5. discrete skills

6. serial skills

7. continuos skills

8. self-paced skills

9. externally paced skills

open skills

occur in an environment that is unpredicatable and frequently changing

closed skills

occur in an environment that is stable and predictable

gross motor skills

require the use of large muscle groups for execution

fine motor skills

require the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement

discrete skills

have a distinctive begining and end that can be identified

serial skills

involve a sequence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total skill

continuos skills

dont have any distinct begining or end

self paced skills

are movements for which the performer determines the timing and speed of execution.

externally paced skills

factors external to the performer set the time for execution of the movement

Peformance elements

Enhanced by 2 areas:

1. decision making - refers to the athletes ability to take into account their owna nd their oponents strengths, weaknesses, and actions in the game situation and use those practices to help them to respond.

2. strategic and tactical development - refers to the importance of individual athletes and the team as a whole developing strategies and tactics to allow them to gain an advantage during a game situation

Practice methods

Examined in 4 ways:

1. massed practice: Is usually most appropiaye for learners that are in automatic stage of skill acquistion. Masses practice usually involves lengthy sessions that have few and short rest breaks for athletes

2. Distributed practice: Is best suited for athletes in the associative and cognitive stage of skill acquistion. In distributed practice the sessions are divided into various sessions and allows for longer rest periods.

3. whole practice: applued when a skill is practiced in its entirety

4. part practice: applied when a skill is broken into smaller components and each discrete sub skill

Feedback

Is an athletes information about their performance, telling them what they have done right, what they have done wrong, and can be used to motivate athletes. (Examined in 6 ways)

Internal feedback

Recieved through the body's proprioceptive mechanisms and occurs as a normal consequnece of performing skills

external feedback

External feedback occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill. This information may take the form of a comment from the coach, applause from the crowd or as a result of a game.

concurrent feedback

is recieved during the performance of a skill. it is relayed through the body by the proprioceptive mechanism.

delayed feedback

feedback recieved at a later stage. e.g. waiting for the result of a basketball throw.

knowledge of results

is information about the outcome of a movement. It suggest how successfully a skill is performed.

knowledge of performance

is information about the pattern of the movement during executioin. It is more specific to the way in which the skilled performed.

Kinaesthetic sense

(Characterstics of skilled performers) Kinaesthesis refers to the system of sensitivity that exists in the muscles and their attatchments. The performers kinaesthic sense allows them to 'feel' the movement as they perform it.

Anticipation

(Characterstics of skilled performers) ability to predict movements or actions before they happen, improving reaction time

consistency

(Characterstics of skilled performers) Ability to perform skills accurately and repeatedlu with minimal errors.