Health and Human Development: Lifespan, Mortality, Health Promotion, Digital Tech, and the Healthcare System

Flashcards covering lifespan development, mortality causes, health promotion, digital health technology, and the Australian healthcare system.

What is the definition of development across the human lifespan?

Development refers to the series of orderly, predictable changes that occur from fertilisation to death.

What are the four main areas of human development studied across the lifespan?

The four main areas of development are physical, social, emotional, and intellectual development.

What are the age ranges and key characteristics of the Infancy and Childhood lifespan stages?

Infancy spans from birth to $2$ years and is a period of rapid growth, increasing mobility, communication, and caregiver attachment. Childhood spans from $2$ to $12$ years, characterized by steady growth and the development of motor, communication, relationship, emotional, and thinking skills.

What are the age ranges and key characteristics of the Youth and Early Adulthood lifespan stages?

Youth spans from $12$ to $18$ years and is a major period of physical, social, emotional, and intellectual change (including puberty). Early adulthood spans from $18$ to $40$ years, where physical growth is generally complete, and individuals often establish careers, intimate relationships, and families.

What are the age ranges and key characteristics of Middle Adulthood and Late Adulthood?

Middle adulthood spans from $40$ to $65$ years, involving gradual physical changes associated with ageing alongside work and family responsibilities. Late adulthood spans from $65+$ years, where ageing becomes increasingly evident in body systems and individuals adapt to changes such as retirement.

What specific quantitative metrics characterize growth during infancy and childhood?

During infancy, birth weight doubles by around $6$ months and triples by $12$ months. During childhood, children grow approximately $5\text{--}6\text{ cm}$ taller and gain $2\text{--}3\text{ kg}$ each year.

How do physical body systems change during infancy, youth, and adulthood?

In infancy, the nervous system develops rapidly, with the brain reaching around $75\%$ of its adult size by age two. In youth, the reproductive system matures during puberty. In adulthood, the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems gradually decline with age.

How is social development defined?

Social development refers to the increasing complexity of behaviour patterns used in relationships with other people.

What is emotional resilience, and how does its manifestation change between infancy and youth?

Resilience involves coping with setbacks and managing stress. In infancy, it is demonstrated by self-soothing with caregiver support, whereas in youth, it involves managing exam stress, friendship conflicts, or setbacks by seeking support and using positive coping strategies.

What processes are included in abstract thinking during intellectual development?

Abstract thinking involves thinking about hypothetical situations, understanding complex concepts that cannot be physically seen (such as justice, equality, freedom, or trust), and making connections between ideas.

What does mortality refer to, and what four measurements are used to examine it?

Mortality refers to death within a population. It can be examined using the number of deaths, mortality rate, causes of death, and age at death.

What are the leading causes of death for infancy and childhood in Australia?

In infancy, perinatal and congenital conditions cause around $4$ in $5$ deaths. In childhood (ages $1\text{--}14$), land transport accidents are the most common cause of death.

What are the leading causes of death for youth (15–24 years) and late adulthood?

For youth aged $15\text{--}24$ years, more than $1$ in $4$ deaths are due to suicide. For late adulthood ($65+$ years), chronic diseases and dementia (including Alzheimer's disease) become the most prominent causes.

What is the difference between perinatal conditions and congenital conditions?

Perinatal conditions develop during pregnancy, birth, or shortly after birth (e.g., premature birth, low birthweight). Congenital conditions are abnormalities of body structure or function present from birth.

What cardiovascular condition is depicted in this diagram showing plaque buildup and artery narrowing?

Coronary heart disease (or Coronary Artery Disease)

What is the World Health Organization (WHO) definition of health promotion?

Health promotion is defined as "the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve their health."

Which five health issues are specifically targeted by health promotion in Australia due to their contribution to the burden of disease?

1. Smoking/vaping
2. Alcohol misuse
3. Road safety
4. Skin cancer
5. Obesity

How do health promotion and health literacy differ in their focus?

Health promotion focuses on improving the health of populations through campaigns, policies, and environmental changes organized by governments and organisations. Health literacy focuses on an individual's ability to access, understand, and use health information to make informed decisions.

What mnemonic is used to remember the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter (1986)?

BAD CATS SMELL DEAD RATS:

• Build healthy public policy
• Create supportive environments
• Strengthen community action
• Develop personal skills
• Reorient health services

What is the description and an example of the Ottawa Charter action area 'Build healthy public policy'?

Laws, regulations, or policies that make healthy choices easier. Examples include cigarette taxes and smoke-free zones.

What is the description and an example of the Ottawa Charter action area 'Reorient health services'?

Shifting healthcare from simply treating illness to preventing it. Examples include vaccination programs and preventative health checks.

What are digital health technologies?

Digital health technologies are systems, tools, and services based on information, communications technology (ICT), and standards used to treat patients, collect and share health information, and empower consumers to make informed care decisions.

What is My Health Record in the Australian digital health system?

My Health Record is a secure digital health system where key health information can be stored and accessed by a patient, their healthcare providers, and any authorised representatives.

What are examples of positive and negative impacts of digital technology on health and wellbeing?

Positive: Fitness/sleep tracking supports physical health, while messaging and online communities help maintain supportive relationships. Negative: Excessive screen time reduces physical activity and sleep, while cyberbullying or social media conflict can harm mental and emotional health.

How does primary healthcare differ from secondary healthcare?

Primary healthcare is the first point of contact, community-based, and requires no referral (e.g., GPs, pharmacists). Secondary healthcare provides specialised care in hospitals or specialist clinics for complex conditions and generally requires a referral from a GP (e.g., cardiologists, dermatologists).

What are allied health services, and what are three examples?

Allied health services are specialized healthcare services provided by health professionals outside the medical, dental, and nursing professions. Examples include physiotherapists, optometrists, podiatrists, chiropractors, and counsellors.

What are alternative health services, and what are three examples?

Alternative health services refer to healthcare practices that can be used instead of or alongside traditional health services. Examples include acupuncture, massage therapy, naturopathy, Pilates, yoga, and traditional Chinese medicine.

What is Medicare, and at what age can individuals register for their own card?

Medicare is Australia's universal healthcare scheme that provides access to health and hospital services regardless of income or location. Individuals can register for their own Medicare card at the age of $15$.

Which health services are covered by Medicare, and which are NOT covered?

Covered: Doctor consultation fees, necessary diagnostic tests/examinations (e.g., x-rays, blood tests), most surgical procedures by doctors, and public hospital treatments. Not covered: Cosmetic procedures, private hospital care, allied health specialties, alternative treatments, health appliances (glasses, hearing aids), and ambulance services.

What does 'bulk billing' mean in Australia's Medicare system?

Bulk billing means the health professional bills Medicare directly and accepts the Medicare benefit as full payment for the medical service, resulting in no out-of-pocket cost for the patient.

What is the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), and how did co-payments change on 1 January 2026?

The PBS lists medicines available at a Government-subsidised price. On 1 January 2026, the maximum general co-payment reduced from $31.60 to $25 for Medicare card holders, while the concessional co-payment remains $7.70 until 2030.