Chapter 11 - Attachment and the Self (Focus on the Self)

Q: What is self-concept?

A: A conceptual system for understanding one’s own physical being, social characteristics, and internal characteristics.

Q: What else does self-concept involve understanding?

A: How these characteristics change or remain stable over time, and one’s role in shaping the self.

Q: What is the first sign that infants understand the self as separate from others?

A: Newborns discriminate the source of contact—turning when touched by someone else but not when touching their own face.

Q: At around four months, what do infants understand about their own limitations?

A: They only reach for things within/near reach and only for objects they could reasonably grasp or lift.

Q: When does mirror self-recognition typically emerge?

A: Around 2 years of age.

Q: How do children under 18 months typically respond to a smudge on their face in a mirror?

A: They see the smudge but touch the mirror rather than their own face.

Q: How do children 18–24 months typically respond to a smudge on their face in a mirror?

A: They see the smudge and touch their own face.

Q: Why might non-Western babies pass the mirror test later than Western babies?

A: Cultural differences, such as collectivist vs. individualist societies; self-awareness may also develop along a continuum.

Q: What is the goal in the "body as obstacle" test?

A: To move the cart over to the caregiver.

Q: What problem do toddlers encounter in the "body as obstacle" test?

A: Their own body prevents the cart from moving while they are standing on the carpet.

Q: What does the "body as obstacle" test assess?

A: Early self-concept and awareness of the body as separate from objects in the environment.

Q: What is the solution toddlers must figure out in the body-as-obstacle task?

A: Move to the side or front of the cart.

Q: What percentage of Scottish toddlers (15–18 months) succeed at this task?

A: About 25%.

Q: What percentage of Turkish and Zambian babies succeed at the body-as-obstacle task?

A: About 50%.

Q: How do Scottish parents typically communicate with their toddlers?

A: Low body contact, high verbal communication, encourage autonomous exploration.

Q: How do Zambian parents typically communicate with their toddlers?

A: High body contact, low verbal communication, mostly directives ("go do this").

Q: How do Turkish parents typically communicate with their toddlers?

A: Mixed communication style, but mostly directives.

Q: What are the three factors influencing early self-concept mentioned?

A:

1) Proximal parenting practices
2) Task-specific skills
3) Cultural emphasis on interdependence

Q: What does the acronym WEIRD stand for in psychology research?

A: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic.

Q: Why is the WEIRD concept important in psychology?

A: Because findings from WEIRD populations may not always be as ‘universal’ as they claim to be.

Q: How does self-concept change across childhood?

A: It becomes increasingly complex.

Q: How might a 3-year-old describe themselves?

A: Focused on the concrete; overly confident, likely due to difficulties cognitively evaluating oneself.

Q: How might a 10-year-old describe themselves?

A: Uses both concrete and some abstract descriptions, involves more comparisons to others, refined through social comparison.

Q: What are the effects of social comparison on a 10-year-old’s self-evaluation?

A: Makes evaluation more realistic but also increases the risk of low self-esteem.

Q: What happens to self-concept during adolescence?

A: Adolescents develop multiple selves, which can make forming one coherent self-concept difficult.

Q: How do young adolescents typically describe themselves?

A: Their self-description is complex and abstract, often characterized by the personal fable and imaginary audience.

Q: What is the personal fable?

A: An egocentric sense that one’s feelings and experiences are profoundly unique.

Q: What is the imaginary audience phenomenon?

A: Adolescents feel that others are just as concerned with their appearance and behaviour as they are.

Q: By late adolescence, what does self-concept often reflect?

A: Internalized personal values, beliefs, and standards.

Q: Which population shows notable differences in self-concept and other social tasks?

A: People with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Q: What type of disorder is Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?

A: A neurodevelopmental disorder.

Q: What are the two core characteristics of ASD?

A:
A) Differences in social communication and interactions
B) Restricted, repetitive behaviours (RRBs), interests, or activities

Q: By what age must symptoms of ASD be apparent?

A: Before age 8.

Q: What must the symptoms of ASD do to meet diagnostic criteria?

A: They must interfere with everyday functioning.

Q: What does it mean that ASD exists on a spectrum?

A: It encompasses a wide range of characteristics and allows for many individual differences.

Q: What three social differences must be present for an ASD diagnosis?

A:

1) Differences in social-emotional reciprocity
2) Differences in nonverbal communication
3) Differences in social awareness, insight, and/or interest in interacting with others

Q: What are examples of differences in social-emotional reciprocity in ASD?

A: Difficulty with back-and-forth conversation, not responding when name is called, not returning social smiles.

Q: What are examples of differences in nonverbal communication in ASD?

A: Differences in eye contact, gestures, and tone of voice.

Q: What are examples of differences in social awareness, insight, or interest in interacting with others in ASD?

A: Difficulty with perspective taking (e.g., Theory of Mind tasks), following social conventions, interpreting others’ emotions.

Q: How does the neurodiversity perspective frame ASD compared to the DSM-V?

A: While the DSM-V frames ASD characteristics as "deficits," neurodiversity frames them as "differences," reflecting normal variations in cognition that can contribute positively to society.

Q: How many of the four patterns of behaviour must be present for an ASD diagnosis?

A: At least 2 out of 4.

Q: What are examples of stereotyped or repetitive behaviours in ASD?

A: Echolalia (repetition of words/phrases), irregular pronoun use (using full name instead of "I"), idiosyncratic/unconventional speech patterns.

Q: What are examples of repetitive body movements in ASD?

A: Hand movements (flapping, hand posturing), body movements (rocking, swaying), also called "stimming."

Q: What characterizes rigid rituals or routines in ASD?

A: Insistence on following sequences of behaviour, maintaining a certain order in surroundings, and big reactions to transitions or changing plans.

Q: What characterizes fixed interests or perseverative preoccupations in ASD?

A: Spending a lot of time thinking about a narrow range of topics, which can include anything like birthdays, cars, plumbers, or weather events, as well as specific fears or attachments to inanimate objects.

Q: What are some differences in sensory sensitivities or interests in ASD?

A: Being overwhelmed by sensations (e.g., loud sounds, certain textures, activities like haircuts), having high thresholds for stimulation, or showing fascination with certain sensations.

Q: What is the estimated heritability of ASD based on studies from five countries?

A: Approximately 80%.

Q: How is the genetic contribution to ASD described?

A: Polygenic, with hundreds of genes contributing.

Q: What environmental factors may play a role in the development of ASD?

A: Parental age, premature birth, and exposure to teratogens.

Q: Is the study of ASD’s origins a settled area of research?

A: No, it is an ongoing area of research.

Q: When are characteristics of ASD typically first recognized?

A: Between 12–24 months.

Q: What are some early signs related to language and communication in ASD?

A: Language delays and unusual communication; the first step is to rule out hearing difficulties.

Q: What are some early signs of low social interest or absence of common social behaviours in ASD?

A: Not attending to others’ eyes and showing low interest in social interactions.

Q: How do restricted, repetitive behaviours (RRBs) typically emerge in early ASD?

A: Examples include arranging objects for hours or getting highly distressed when routines are interrupted.

Q: How consistent is the evidence on ASD’s impact on self-awareness related to one’s body?

A: Mixed; some studies find poorer performance on mirror recognition tasks, while others do not.

Q: What do other self-body recognition tasks suggest about self-awareness in children with ASD?

A: They provide support for self-awareness among kids with ASD.

Q: In the matching task, how do children without ASD perform when the target image is their own body?

A: They are more accurate, implicitly demonstrating self-awareness.

Q: How do children with ASD perform compared to same-age peers?

A: They are less accurate at matching overall.

Q: Does lower overall accuracy in children with ASD indicate a lack of self-awareness?

A: No, it does not.

Q: What evidence suggests children with ASD do have self-awareness of their body?

A: They show a “self-preference” by being better at matching when the target is their own body, demonstrating implicit self-awareness.

Q: How does ASD impact social self-awareness?

A: People with ASD may have difficulties with pronouns and/or talking about themselves in the third person.

Q: What is alexithymia and how does it relate to ASD?

A: Alexithymia, or "emotion blindness," is more common in people with ASD, but it is not universal.

Q: What did a meta-analysis find about the prevalence of alexithymia in people with ASD versus those without?

A: About 50% prevalence in those with ASD compared to 5% in those without ASD.

Q: What is one of the most studied phenomena in ASD research related to social understanding?

A: Difficulty solving false belief tasks.

Q: What proportion of children with ASD (ages 6–14) typically pass standard Theory of Mind (ToM) tasks?

A: Less than 50%.

Q: What social differences in ASD might this difficulty help explain?

A: Large differences in social communication.

Q: What is “mind blindness” in the context of ASD?

A: The idea that people with ASD have differences in their Theory of Mind module (ToMM), leading to difficulty considering others’ perspectives.

Q: What is a common misconception about “mind blindness” and interactions between people with ASD?

A: That two people with ASD must have a really hard time interacting because neither can figure the other out.

Q: How do people with ASD typically interact with each other compared to with non-ASD individuals?

A: They often feel more comfortable and understood by each other, and ASD/ASD pairs communicate information as effectively as non-ASD/non-ASD pairs.

Q: Where do communication breakdowns specifically emerge for people with ASD?

A: Between ASD/non-ASD pairs.

Q: What is the Double Empathy Problem?

A: The idea that both people with and without ASD contribute to the disconnect in cognitive empathy—it goes both ways.

Q: What are two characteristics of individuals with high self-esteem?

A: They feel good about themselves and are hopeful in general.

Q: What potential cost can high self-esteem have?

A: It can have costs if it is not based on positive self attributes.

Q: What are two characteristics of individuals with low self-esteem?

A: They feel worthless and feel hopelessness.

Q: What difficulties may individuals with low self-esteem turn to?

A: Aggression, depression, substance abuse, social withdrawal, and suicidal ideation.

Q: How does age influence self-esteem?

A: Self-esteem varies by developmental stage.

Q: How do physical attributes influence self-esteem?

A: Attractiveness is linked to higher self-esteem, positive perceptions, and better treatment by others.

Q: How does gender influence self-esteem?

A: Boys generally have higher self-esteem across the lifespan; there are also specific domain differences.

Q: How is self-esteem affected in transgender and nonbinary children?

A: It is affected by the amount of parental support and access to gender-affirming medical care.

Q: How does parental approval and support influence self-esteem?

A: Secure attachment is associated with higher self-esteem, whereas belittlement and rejection are associated with feelings of worthlessness.

Q: How does peer approval and support influence self-esteem?

A: It becomes increasingly important as children age.

Q: How do life transitions affect self-esteem?

A: Life transitions are associated with lower self-esteem.

Q: How do school and neighbourhood environments influence self-esteem?

A: Lack of attention, support, and friendship in school or living in low-income and violent neighbourhoods are associated with lower self-esteem in adolescents.

Q: Can the meaning of self-esteem vary across cultures?

A: Yes, self-esteem can have different meanings in different cultures.

Q: How is self-esteem typically defined in Western cultures?

A: It is related to individual accomplishments and self-promotion.

Q: How is self-esteem typically defined in Asian cultures?

A: It is defined more by contributing to the welfare of the larger group.

Q: What is identity?

A: A description of the self that is often externally imposed, such as through membership in a group.

Q: Can individuals hold multiple identities?

A: Yes, we can hold multiple identities.

Q: What psychosocial stage is associated with adolescence in Erikson’s theory?

A: Identity vs. Role Confusion.

Q: What key questions define the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage?

A: “Who am I?” and “Where do I fit in?”

Q: What did James Marcia investigate?

A: The formation of identity during adolescence.

Q: What two dimensions did Marcia use to categorize adolescents’ identity development?

A:
1) How much they had explored various identities
2) How committed they were to their identity

Q: What did Marcia generate based on these dimensions?

A: Four identity status groupings that have been widely investigated.

Q: Why is identity status important in Western society?

A: It is related to adjustment, social behaviour, and personality.

Q: What is Identity Achievement?

A: The individual has explored potential identities and has committed to one.

Q: What is Moratorium?

A: The individual is exploring various identities and has not yet made a clear commitment to any.

Q: What is Identity Foreclosure?

A: The individual has not explored potential identities and has chosen an identity based on the choices or values of others.

Q: What is Identity Diffusion?

A: The individual is not making progress toward exploring or committing to an identity.

Q: What are the most typical sequences of change in identity status?

A:
1) Diffusion → Foreclosure → Achievement
2) Diffusion → Moratorium → Foreclosure → Achievement