postmodernism and family diversity

• Modernist perspectives such as f____ see the nuclear family as what? They take what type of view? seeing the family as doing what?This means individuals have little c____, with family life appearing o___ and p____ (most m___ and have c____),

• At most, there may be some limited variety in family life, - identified b who ?

• By contrast, postmodernists such as D___ C____ (19__) go much further than the r___

• Postmodernists start from the view that we no longer live in 'm____' society with its p____, o____ s____ such as the nuclear f___

• In their view, society has entered what type of stage?

• Modernist perspectives such as functionalism see the nuclear family as dominant in modern society. They take a structural, ‘top-down’ view, seeing the family as shaping members’ behaviour to perform society’s functions. This means individuals have little choice, with family life appearing orderly and predictable (most marry and have children),

• At most, there may be some limited variety in family life, such as the five types of diversity identified by the Rapoports.

• By contrast, postmodernists such as David Cheal (1993) go much further than the Rapoports.

• Postmodernists start from the view that we no longer live in 'modern' society with its predictable, orderly structures such as the nuclear family.

• In their view, society has entered a new, chaotic, postmodern stage.

• In postmodern society, there is no longer what?

• instead, family structures have become f____ into many different types and individuals now have much more c____ in their l____, p____ r___ and f___ a____

• people are able to ‘p___ and m____’ identities from s___, l____, and movements.

• what makes life less predictable and what is it driven by?

• Family life is now less s___ but offers more choice, meaning g____ like P___’ about a s___ d___ family type are no longer possible.

• In postmodern society, there is no longer one single, dominant, stable family structure such as the nuclear family.

• instead, family structures have become fragmented into many different types and individuals now have much more choice in their lifestyles, personal relationships and family arrangements

• people are able to ‘pick and mix’ identities from subcultures, lifestyles, and movements.

• Rapid social change, driven by technology and media, makes life less predictable.

• Family life is now less stable but offers more choice, meaning generalisations like Parsons’ about a single dominant family type are no longer possible.

Some writers argue that this greater diversity and choice brings with it both advantages and disadvantages:

• name one advantage

• name one disadvantage

Some writers argue that this greater diversity and choice brings with it both advantages and disadvantages:

• ✓- It gives individuals greater freedom to plot their own life course - to choose the kind of family and personal relationships that meet their needs.

• ✘- But greater freedom of choice in relationships means a greater risk of instability, since these relationships are more likely to break up.

Stacey: postmodern families

• J____ S____ (1998) argues that greater freedom and choice has benefited who and in what ways?

Stacey: postmodern families

• Judith Stacey (1998) argues that greater freedom and choice has benefited women.

• it has enabled them to free themselves from patriarchal oppression and to shape thew family arrangements to meet their needs.

Stacey: postmodern families

• Stacey used life h___ i___ to construct a series of c___ s___ of postmodern families in where?

• She found that women rather than men have been what?

• For example, many of the women she interviewed had rejected what?

• They had w___, returned to e____ as adults, improved their j___ p____, d____ and r_-m____ .

• These women had often created what?

Stacey: postmodern families

• Stacey used life history interviews to construct a series of case studies of postmodern families in Silicon Valley, California.

• She found that women rather than men have been the main agents of changes in the family.

• For example, many of the women she interviewed had rejected the traditional housewife-mother role.

• They had worked, returned to education as adults, improved their job prospects, divorced and re-married.

• These woren had often created new types of family that better suited their needs.

Stacey: postmodern families

• Stacey calls one of these new family structures what?, whose members are connected by d___ rather than m___.

• The key members are usually f__¥ and may include former i__-l___, such as what?

• For example, Stacey describes in one of her case studies how Pam Gamma created a divorce-extended family. how did she do this?

Stacey: postmodern families

• Stacey calls one of these new family structures the divorce-extended family, whose members are connected by divorce rather than marriage.

• The key members are usually female and may include former in-laws, such as mother- and daughter-in-law, or a man's ex-wife and his new partner.

• For example, Stacey describes in one of her case studies how Pam Gamma created a divorce-extended family. Pam married young, then divorced and cohabited for several years before re-marrying. Her second husband had also been married before.

• By the time the children of Pam's first marriage were in their twenties, she had formed a divorce-extended family with Shirley, the woman cohabiting with her first husband.

• They helped each other financially and domestically, for example by exchanging lodgers in response to the changing needs of their households.

Stacey: postmodern families

• Such cases illustrate the idea that postmodern families are d___ and that their shape depends on what?

• Thus, as D___ M____ (1996; 2011) argues, it is pointless trying to do what ?, as f_____do.

• Rather, a family is simply whatever a____ those involved choose to c____ their family. In this view, sociologists should focus their attention on what?

• one way of exploring this is by means of life course analysis- Life course analysis, developed by T___ H___ (1978), uses what method ? to study how people give meaning to f____ c____ (e.g. having a b___, leaving home).

• H____ and 0 M____ (2005) show how parents, friends and others influence hay. This method values i____’ own v___ and is useful in today’s postmodern society of choice and family diversity.

Stacey: postmodern families

• Such cases illustrate the idea that postmodern families are diverse and that their shape depends on the active choices people make about how to live their lives - for example, whether to get divorced, cohabit, come out as gay etc.

• Thus, as David Morgan (1996; 2011) argues, it is pointless trying to make large-scale generalisations about 'the family' as if it were a single thing, as functionalists do.

• Rather, a family is simply whatever arrangements those involved choose to call their family. In this view, sociologists should focus their attention on how people create their own diverse family lives and practices.

• one way of exploring this is by means of life course analysis- Life course analysis, developed by Tamara Hareven (1978), uses unstructured interviews to study how people give meaning to family choices (e.g. having a baby, leaving home).

• Holdsworth and Morgan (2005) show how parents, friends and others influence young people leaving home. This method values individuals’ own views and is useful in today’s postmodern society of choice and family diversity.

The individualisation thesis

While not accepting everything postmodernism says about the nature of society today, sociologists such as G____ and B____ have been influenced by postmodernist ideas about today's society and have applied some of these to understanding family life

The individualisation thesis

While not accepting everything postmodernism says about the nature of society today, sociologists such as Giddens and Beck have been influenced by postmodernist ideas about today's society and have applied some of these to understanding family life

The individualisation thesis

• The individualisation thesis argues what?

• According to the thesis, in the past, people's lives were defined what. For example, everyone was expected to m___ and to take up their a___ g___ r___.

• By contrast, individuals in today's society have fewer what?

• According to the individualisation thesis, therefore, we have become freed or 'disembedded from what? leaving us with more what ?

• As Beck (1992) puts it, the 'standard b___ or life course that people followed in the p___ has been replaced by what that individuals today must c___ for themselves

• For Giddens and Beck, this change has huge implications for family relationships and family diversity, which we shall now examine

The individualisation thesis

• The individualisation thesis argues that traditional social structures such as class, gender and family have lost much of their influence over us

• According to the thesis, in the past, people's lives were defined by fixed roles that largely prevented them from choosing their own life course. For example, everyone was expected to marry and to take up their appropriate gender role.

• By contrast, individuals in today's society have fewer such certainties or fixed roles to follow.

• According to the individualisation thesis, therefore, we have become freed or 'disembedded from traditional roles and structures, leaving us with more freedom to choose how we lead our lives.

• As Beck (1992) puts it, the 'standard biography or life course that people followed in the past has been replaced by the 'do-it-yourself biography that individuals today must construct for themselves

• For Giddens and Beck, this change has huge implications for family relationships and family diversity, which we shall now examine

The individualisation thesis- Giddens: choice and equality

Giddens (19___) argues that in recent decades the family and marriage have been t___ by greater c____ and a more e___ relationship between men and women.

This transformation has occurred because of what 2 reasons ?

The individualisation thesis- Giddens: choice and equality

Giddens (1992) argues that in recent decades the family and marriage have been transformed by greater choice and a more equal relationship between men and women. This transformation has occurred because:

1. Contraception has allowed sex and intimacy rather than reproduction to become the main reason for the relationship's existence.

2. Women have gained independence as a result of feminism and because of greater opportunities in education and work

The individualisation thesis- Giddens: choice and equality

As a result, the basis of marriage and the family has changed.

• Giddens argues that in the past, t___ family relationships were held together by external forces such as what 2 things?

• By contrast, today couples are f___ to d___ their relationship themselves, rather than simply acting out r___ that have been d___ in a___ by l___ or t___.

• For example, a couple nowadays don't have to marry to have c___ and divorce is readily a___ so they don't have to stay together til what?

The individualisation thesis- Giddens: choice and equality

As a result, the basis of marriage and the family has changed.

• Giddens argues that in the past, traditional family relationships were held together by external forces such as the laws governing the marriage contract and by powerful norms against divorce and sex outside marriage.

• By contrast, today couples are free to define their relationship themselves, rather than simply acting out roles that have been defined in advance by law or tradition.

• For example, a couple nowadays don't have to marry to have children and divorce is readily accessible so they don't have to stay together 'til death do us part'.

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →The pure relationship

• According to Giddens, what h___ relationships together today is no longer l___, r___, s___ n____ or t____ i___. Instead, intimate relationships nowadays are based on individual c___ and e____.

• Giddens describes this kind of relationship as the 'pure relationship'. He sees the pure relationship as t___ of today's late modern society, in which relationships are no longer bound by what

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →The pure relationship

• According to Giddens, what holds relationships together today is no longer law, religion, social norms or traditional institutions. Instead, intimate relationships nowadays are based on individual choice and equality.

• Giddens describes this kind of relationship as the 'pure relationship'. He sees the pure relationship as typical of today's late modern society, in which relationships are no longer bound by traditional norms.

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →The pure relationship

• The key feature of the pure relationship is that it exists solely to do what ? As a result, the relationship is likely to s____ only so long as both partners think it is in their own i____ to do so.

• Couples stay together because of what 3 things? rather than because of what 3 things?

• Individuals are thus f___ to choose to e____ and to l___ relationships as they see fit.

• Relationships become part of the process of what?: trying different r____ becomes a way of establishing 'who we are'

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →The pure relationship

• The key feature of the pure relationship is that it exists solely to satisfy each partner's needs. As a result, the relationship is likely to survive only so long as both partners think it is in their own interest to do so.

• Couples stay together because of love, happiness or sexual attraction, rather than because of tradition, a sense of duty or for the sake of the children.

• Individuals are thus free to choose to enter and to leave relationships as they see fit.

• Relationships become part of the process of the individual's self-discovery or self-identity: trying different relationships becomes a way of establishing 'who we are'

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →The pure relationship

• However, Giddens notes that with more choice, what inevitably happens to personal relationships?

• The pure relationship is a kind of 'r___ contract' that can be ended more or less at will by either partner, rather than a p___ commitment.

• This in turn produces greater family diversity by creating what type of families

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →The pure relationship

• However, Giddens notes that with more choice, personal relationships inevitably become less stable.

• The pure relationship is a kind of 'rolling contract' that can be ended more or less at will by either partner, rather than a permanent commitment.

• This in turn produces greater family diversity by creating more lone-parent families, one person households, stepfamilies and so on.

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →Same-sex couples as pioneers

• Giddens sees same-sex relationships as leading the way towards new family types and creating more democratic and equal relationships.

• In Giddens' view, this is because same-sex relationships are not influenced by tradition to the extent that heterosexual relationships are (indeed they have generally been stigmatised and even criminalised). As a result, same-sex couples have been able to develop relationships based on choice rather than

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →Same-sex couples as pioneers

• Giddens sees same-sex relationships as leading the way towards new family types and creating more democratic and equal relationships.

• In Giddens' view, this is because same-sex relationships are not influenced by tradition to the extent that heterosexual relationships are (indeed they have generally been stigmatised and even criminalised).

• As a result, same-sex couples have been able to develop relationships based on choice rather than

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →Same-sex couples as pioneers

• Giddens sees same-sex relationships as leading the way towards new f___ t___ and creating more d___ and e___ relationships.

• In Giddens' view, this is because same-sex relationships are not influenced by t___ to the e___ that h____ relationships are (indeed they have generally been s____ and even c____).

• As a result, same-sex couples have been able to develop relationships based on choice rather than on what and why ?

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →Same-sex couples as pioneers

• Giddens sees same-sex relationships as leading the way towards new family types and creating more democratic and equal relationships.

• In Giddens' view, this is because same-sex relationships are not influenced by tradition to the extent that heterosexual relationships are (indeed they have generally been stigmatised and even criminalised).

• As a result, same-sex couples have been able to develop relationships based on choice rather than on traditional roles, since these were largely absent.

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →Same-sex couples as pioneers

• This has enabled those in same-sex relationships to negotiate personal relationships and to actively create family structures that serve their own n___, rather than having to c___ to pre-existing n___ in the way that h____ couples have t___ had to do.

• For example, W___ (1992) found that same-sex couples created supportive 'f ___ of c____' from among friends, former lovers and biological kin, while Weeks (2000) found that friendship networks functioned as what for gay men and lesbians.

The individualisation thesis: Giddens: choice and equality →Same-sex couples as pioneers

• This has enabled those in same-sex relationships to negotiate personal relationships and to actively create family structures that serve their own needs, rather than having to conform to pre-existing norms in the way that heterosexual couples have traditionally had to do.

• For example, Weston (1992) found that same-sex couples created supportive 'families of choice' from among friends, former lovers and biological kin, while Weeks (2000) found that friendship networks functioned as kinship networks for gay men and lesbians.

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family

• Another version of the individualisation thesis is put forward by U___ B___ (19__).

• Beck argues that we now live in a r___ s___' where t____ has less i___ and people have more c___. As a result, we are more aware of r___.

• This is because making choices involves doing what?

• This contrasts with an earlier time when people's roles were more fixed by what?

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family

• Another version of the individualisation thesis is put forward by Ulrich Beck (1992).

• Beck arogues that we now live in a risk society' where tradition has less influence and people have more choice. As a result, we are more aware of risks.

• This is because making choices involves calculating the risks and rewards of the different options open to us.

• This contrasts with an earlier time when people's roles were more fixed by tradition and rigid social norms dictated how they should behave.

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family

• For example, in the past, people were expected to m___ for l___ and, once married, men were expected to play what role? , while women took responsibility for what ?

• Although this traditional patriarchal family was unequal and oppressive, what was good about it ?

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family

• For example, in the past, people were expected to marry for life and, once married, men were expected to play the role of breadwinner and disciplinarian and to make the important financial decisions, while women took responsibility for the housework, childcare and care of the sick and elderly.

• Although this traditional patriarchal family was unequal and oppressive, it did provide a stable and predictable basis for family life by defining each member's role and responsibilities.

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family

However, the patriarchal family has been undermined by what two trends?

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family

However, the patriarchal family has been undermined by two trends:

• Greater gender equality, which has challenged male domination in all spheres of life. Women now expect equality both at work and in marriage.

• Greater individualism, where people's actions are influenced more by calculations of their own self-interest than by a sense of obligation to others.

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family

• These trends have led to a new type of family replacing the patriarchal family. U____ B____ and E____ B____-G____ (1995) call this the 'what

• n____ families do not conform to the what ? but vary according to the w____ and e___ of their m___, who decide what is b____ for themselves by n____- they enter the relationship on an e____ basis.

• However, although the negotiated family is more equal than the patriarchal family, it is less s____.

• This is because individuals are free to l___ if their n___ are not met.

• As a result, this instability leads to greater family diversity - how?

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family

• These trends have led to a new type of family replacing the patriarchal family. Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim (1995) call this the 'negotiated family'.

• Negotiated families do not conform to the traditional family norm, but vary according to the wishes and expectations of their members, who decide what is best for themselves by negotiation- they enter the relationship on an equal basis.

• However, although the negotiated family is more equal than the patriarchal family, it is less stable.

• This is because individuals are free to leave if their needs are not met.

• As a result, this instability leads to greater family diversity by creating more lone-parent families, one person households, re-marriages and so on.

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family→the zombie family

• Although in today's uncertain r____ s____ people turn to the family in the hope of finding s___, in reality family relationships are themselves now subject to what than ever before.

• For this reason, Beck describes the family as a 'zombie - why?

  People want it to be a h____ of s____ in an i___ world, but today's family cannot provide this because of its own i____.

The individualisation thesis: Beck: the negotiated family→the zombie family

• Although in today's uncertain risk society people turn to the family in the hope of finding security, in reality family relationships are themselves now subject to greater risk and uncertainty than ever before.

• For this reason, Beck describes the family as a 'zombie category: it appears to be alive, but in reality it is dead.

  People want it to be a haven of security in an insecure world, but today's family cannot provide this because of its own instability.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective

• Sociologists who take a personal life perspective, such as C__ S___ (20___) and V____ M____ (20), agree that there is now more f___ d____ but they disagree what

• They make several criticisms of what

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective

• Sociologists who take a personal life perspective, such as Carol Smart (2007) and Vanessa May (2013), agree that there is now more family diversity but they disagree with Beck and Giddens explanation of it.

• They make several criticisms of the individualisation thesis.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective

• Firstly, the individualisation thesis exaggerates what?

• As S____ B____ (2011) notes, this reflects the n____ i___ that individuals today have complete f___ of c___.

• In reality, however, t___ n___ that limit people's relationship c___ have not w____ as much as the thesis claims.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective

• Firstly, the individualisation thesis exaggerates how much choice people have about family relationships today.

• As Shelley Budgeon (2011) notes, this reflects the neoliberal ideology that individuals today have complete freedom of choice.

• In reality, however, traditional norms that limit people's relationship choices have not weakened as much as the thesis claims.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective

• Secondly, the thesis wrongly sees people as d____, ‘f___-f___', i____ individuals.

• It ignores the fact that that our decisions and choices about personal relationships are made how

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective

• Secondly, the thesis wrongly sees people as disembedded, ‘free-floating', independent individuals.

• It ignores the fact that that our decisions and choices about personal relationships are made within a social context.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective

• Thirdly, the individualisation thesis ignores the importance of structural factors such as s____ c___ i____ and p____ g____ n____ in limiting and shaping our relationship choices.

• As May notes, this is because G____ and B____ view of the individual is simply 'an idealised version of a White, middle-class man'.

• They ignore the fact that not everyone has the same ability as this privileged group to do what

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective

• Thirdly, the individualisation thesis ignores the importance of structural factors such as social class inequalities and patriarchal gender norms in limiting and shaping our relationship choices.

• As May notes, this is because Giddens and Beck's view of the individual is simply 'an idealised version of a White, middle-class man'.

• They ignore the fact that not everyone has the same ability as this privileged group to exercise choice about relationships.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

• Reflecting these criticisms, sociologists from the personal life perspective propose an alternative to the individualisation thesis. S____ calls this the 'connectedness thesis'.

• Instead of seeing us as what type of individuals with l____ choice about p___ r___, Smart argues that we are fundamentally s___ b___ whose choices are always made 'within a w____ of c____'.

• According to the connectedness thesis, we live within networks of what?, and these strongly influence what?

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

• Reflecting these criticisms, sociologists from the personal life perspective propose an alternative to the individualisation thesis. Smart calls this the 'connectedness thesis'.

• Instead of seeing us as disembedded, isolated individuals with limitless choice about personal relationships, Smart argues that we are fundamentally social beings whose choices are always made 'within a web of connectedness'.

• According to the connectedness thesis, we live within networks of existing relationships and interwoven personal histories, and these strongly influence our range of options and choices in relationships.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

• For example, F____ and M____ (1993) study of e___ families found that, although individuals can to some extent negotiate the relationships they want, what are they embedded and restricted by ?. - Such findings challenge the notion of the p___ r___.

• Families usually include more than just the couples that G____ f____ on, and even couple relationships are not always 'p____' relationships that we can walk away from at will.

• For example, parents who separate remain linked by their ___, often against their w___. As Smart says, 'where lives have become interwoven and embedded, it becomes impossible for what.'. Smart therefore emphasises the importance of always putting individuals in the context of their p____ and the w____ of r____ that shape their what?

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

• For example, Finch and Mason's (1993) study of extended families found that, although individuals can to some extent negotiate the relationships they want, they are also embedded within family connections and obligations that restrict their freedom of choice. - Such findings challenge the notion of the pure relationship.

• Families usually include more than just the couples that Giddens focuses on, and even couple relationships are not always 'pure' relationships that we can walk away from at will.

• For example, parents who separate remain linked by their children, often against their wishes. As Smart says, 'where lives have become interwoven and embedded, it becomes impossible for relationships to simply end'. Smart therefore emphasises the importance of always putting individuals in the context of their past and the web of relationships that shape their choices and family patterns.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

class and gender

• The connectedness thesis also emphasises the role of the what structures in which we are e____

• These structures l___ our c___ about the kinds of relationships, identities and families we can create for ourselves. For example:

• After a d_____, g_____ n____ generally d____ that who should have c____ of the children, which may l___ their opportunity to form new r____. By contrast, men are freer to do what

• Men are generally better p____ than women and this gives them g___ f____ and choice in r____

• The relative powerlessness of women and children as compared with men means that many lack freedom to c___ and so remain trapped in a____ relationships

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

class and gender

• The connectedness thesis also emphasises the role of the class and gender structures in which we are embedded

• These structures limit our choices about the kinds of relationships, identities and families we can create for ourselves. For example:

• After a divorce, gender norms generally dictate that women should have custody of the children, which may limit their opportunity to form new relationships. By contrast, men are freer to start new relationships and second families

• Men are generally better paid than women and this gives them greater freedom and choice in relationships

• The relative powerlessness of women and children as compared with men means that many lack freedom to choose and so remain trapped in abusive relationships

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

The power of structures

• Beck and Giddens argue that there has been a disappearance or weakening of the what? that traditionally c_____ o______ l____ and limited our c___

• However, as M___ argues, these structures are not d___, they are simply being r___-s___. For example, while women in the past 150 years have gained important rights in relation to what?, this does not mean that they now have it a___': For example, while women can now pursue traditionally 'masculine' goals such as careers, they are still expected to be what?.

• As A____ E___ (2011) argues, while lesbianism is now t___, heteronormativity (norms favouring heterosexuality) means that many lesbians feel how? and this limits their choices about their r____ and l____

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

The power of structures

• Beck and Giddens argue that there has been a disappearance or weakening of the structures of class, gender and family that traditionally controlled our lives and limited our choices.

• However, as May argues, these structures are not disappearing, they are simply being re-shaped. For example, while women in the past 150 years have gained important rights in relation to voting, divorce, education and mployment, this does not mean that they now have it all': For example, while women can now pursue traditionally 'masculine' goals such as careers, they are still expected to be heterosexual.

• As Anna Einasdottir (2011) argues, while lesbianism is now tolerated, heteronormativity (norms favouring heterosexuality) means that many lesbians feel forced to remain "in the closet' and this limits their choices about their relationships and lifestyles.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

• Thus, the personal life perspective does not see increased diversity simply as a result of greater freedom of choice, as Beck and Giddens do. Instead, it emphasises the importance of whatin shaping the freedoms many people now have to create more diverse types of families.

• Thus, although there is a trend towards greater diversity and choice, the personal life perspective emphasises the continuing importance of what in r___ people's choices and shaping their family lives.

x Criticism of the individualisation thesis- the personal life perspective →The connectedness thesis

• Thus, the personal life perspective does not see increased diversity simply as a result of greater freedom of choice, as Beck and Giddens do. Instead, it emphasises the importance of social structures in shaping the freedoms many people now have to create more diverse types of families.

• Thus, although there is a trend towards greater diversity and choice, the personal life perspective emphasises the continuing importance of structural factors such as patriarchy and class inequality in restricting people's choices and shaping their family lives.