Oral Communication Unit 3

Exam 3 - Ivory pages, p. 269-278, green pages, chapter 5

Interview

A process with 2 or more people that are communicating in a structured environment with a specific purpose in mind. This also involves asking and answering questions.

Interview vs. Conversation

• Interviews have clear goals while conversations may not

• Interviews have a 3 part structure, conversations are often less organized

• The interviewee usually speaks more than the interviewer, so there are uneven amounts of speaking, unlike conversations which are usually even

• One party directs the interviews (interviewer), while conversations don’t have a designated conductor

Roles In an Interview

Interviewer: the person(s) that organizes and conducts the interview as well as prepares and asks the questions

Interviewee: the person(s) who is asked the questions and provides answers

Types of Interviews

• Employment - selecting people for a new job 

1) Screening - short question-answer to narrow list

2) Selection - in-depth, usually with a final decision

• Performance Appraisal - used in workplaces to evaluate someone’s job

• Counseling - used when someone seeks problem-solving advice in areas such as education, career, and mental health

• Exit - conducted by an employer when someone leaves a job

• Persuasive - intended to influence another person concerning an attitude or behavior

• Journalistic - gathering information to create a news story, press release, magazine article, radio or TV show, or other forms of media

• Disciplinary/Interrogation - used in workplaces to “correct” a behavior or to investigate a problem, often used by law-enforcement

• Information Gathering - designed to seek information and may be used for a project, research task, or for personal reasons

Selection Interview

A conversation meant to evaluate a candidate for a job or other kind of opportunity (e.g., scholarships, promotions, awards, acceptance into a graduate program, etc.)

General Goals

General reason why the interview is being conducted

Ex. “a new server needs to be hired”

Specific Goals

What specific information is being sought after

Ex. “we need to hire a new server that is flexible, has experience, has good communication skills, and has a high-school diploma”

Planning the Interview - Interviewer

1) Clarify the purpose of the interview

• General and specific goals

2) Develop interview questions

• Should relate to purpose of the interview and follow one or more types of identified questions

3) Organize order of questions

4) Prepare introduction and conclusion

5) Set a time/schedule for interview

6) Arrange setting of the interview

• Appropriate physical setting regarding lighting, timing, comfort, noise, and other issues

Planning the Interview - Interviewee

1) Clarify the interviewer’s goals

• Review information about interview

2) Clarify your goals

• What information would you like to convey in the interview?

3) Do your homework

• Research information about the interviewer

Types of Questions

Direct - ask for information in a straight-forward way

Indirect - ask for information in a round-about way, true intentions not always clear

Open - interviewee is encouraged to give detailed, elaborate responses

Closed - interviewee is encouraged to give a brief, one or two word response

Primary - first time a topic is introduced in an interview

Secondary - a follow-up to or clarification for the primary questions (planned or unplanned)

Leading - signal desires for interviewee to respond a certain way

Neutral - reveal no bias to the topic being discussed

Hypothetical - asks what the interviewee would do in a certain                   situation

Stages of Interview - Introduction/Opening

Beginning of the interview that is often brief and started by the interviewer to set the tone of the interview. Should create rapport and reduce tension as well. Should also fit type of interview.

• Small talk

• Preview goals of the interview

• Preview the interview itself: how long, how many questions, other important information

Stages of Interview - Body

Usually the longest section and involves the interviewer asking questions in a planned order, and the interviewee answering the questions. 

Stages of Interview - Conclusion

Ends the interview and sets the tone for future communication between the interviewer and interviewee. May include:

• Brief review of what occurred during the interview

• Appropriate nonverbal behaviors such as a handshake

• Clarification of when and if future contact will be made

• Post-interview evaluation by both parties

Interviewer Responsibilities

Verbal:

• Use appropriate question types for goal of interviews (ex. open questions for obtaining information)

• Avoid leading questions

• Questions phrased to be sensitive to interviewee’s cultural background

• Ask secondary questions if needed for more information (planned or unplanned)

• Give interviewee sufficient information in conclusion of interview

• In employment interviews, develop a script of questions to ask all candidates

Nonverbal:

• Conduct interview in an appropriate setting (noise, space, seating, etc)

• Eye contact

• Comfortable seating distance and equal positions, lean in toward interviewee

• Speak clearly

• Supportive nonverbal like nodding head and paralinguistics (how you speak) to show you are listening

• Appropriate facial expressions to convey interest

• Shake hands at beginning and end of interview

• Pay attention to time of interview

Interviewee Responsibilities

Verbal:

• Give clear, detailed responses

• Prepare to provide examples and stories to emphasize points

• Be honest

• Avoid slang and profanity

• Use concrete, descriptive language

• Correct any perceived misunderstandings

• Use paraphrasing to clarify questions if necessary

• Stay on subject; don’t ramble

Nonverbal:

• Eye contact

• Comfortable personal space, lean in

• Speak in an engaged manner, demonstrate interest

• Arrive early

• Dress appropriately

Analyzing Interview

After the interview, review:

• Nonverbal communication skills

• Verbal communication skills

• Effectiveness of questions

• Quality of responses

• Content of information gathered

• Structure of interview

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

In employment interviews, topics that are likely not relevant and could violate EEOC guidelines include questions regarding:

• National origin/Citizenship

• Race/Ethnicity

• Age (unless legal age requirements occur)

• Marital/Family status

• Membership in social organizations

• Disability (asked only if it could interfere with job performance)

• Arrest record

• Child care arrangements

• Military discharge (military service questions may be relevant, but not the type of discharge)

• Religion

Behavioral Interview

A question and answer session that mainly focuses on a candidate’s past performance (behavior) related to the job. (e.g., experiences working on a team or a situation where you faced an ethical dilemma and how you handled it.)

Verbal Communication

The creation of meaning between people through the use of words, which can be both spoken and written.

Verbal communication is also content oriented, meaning that the main goal is to share and exchange information.

Verbal: content

Nonverbal: relationship

Words

• The prime component of verbal communication that can be both spoken and written. Words do not have meaning in and of themselves; meaning is created through the people. The sender and receiver create the meaning for each word that is used and perceived, and therefore, communicators cannot be sure that they are giving similar meanings to the same words.

• Words are also culturally learned, so meanings of words and the way language is used are learned through peoples’ cultures, which can be determined by geography, age, income, occupation, etc.

• Words reflect the environment of the speaker, and language adapts to the special needs of people in certain locations. For example, living around something that is very common leads to more words and more language being centered around the item. (e.g., nearby ocean, more words for it; many cars, more words to describe cars.)

• Words influence the content and pattern of our thoughts. How we perceive the world is significantly shaped by our vocabulary and the language we use

• Words are tools in the expression of social and political issues

Advantages of Using Words

• Transcend time - past, present, future

• Transcend space - we can discuss any place

• Building relationships

• Communicate needs to others

• Identity and bonding to a group

• Creativity

• Cultural values can be passed on

Disadvantages of Using Words

• Words can mean different things to different people

• The verbal message received is not always what the sender intended (due to not listening or misunderstandings)

• One word can have multiple meanings given to it

• Words can escape us

• Words can be used in a connotative way

• Language can make us feel alienated (meaning of a word shared between friends, type of language, etc.)

Attitudes

Word choice and the meaning we assign to words reveal our attitudes and the attitude of our cultures. (e.g., culture or individual using “police officer” over “policeman” shows an attitude toward gender stereotypes.)

Verbal Behavior and Positive Self Concept

• They can say “I don’t know” or “I was wrong”

• They can accept praise and criticism

• They use original phrases and avoid clichés

• They use assertive and non-manipulative language

Verbal Behavior and Negative Self Concept

• They are quick to become defensive about blame

• They tend to be self-critical

• They are unable to accept deserved praise

• They often use clichés

• They use nonassertive, aggressive, or manipulative language

Aspects of Verbal Communication

• Words are culturally learned

  • dominant culture, sub-culture

  • “phonemes” of a language (sounds) are unique to each language

• Words are content-oriented

• Words can reflect the environment

• Words reveal attitudes, or at least interpreted that way

• Language shapes attitudes, and can reveal and create attitudes

  • (e.g., naming)

• Words can change how we think about something and how we see something

• Words can show a person’s self-concept

• Words are tools in politics, social campaigns, and marketing

  • (e.g., “war on terrorism”, “stop, drop, and roll”,”just do it”)

• Words influence the content and pattern of our thoughts

Advantages of Verbal Communication

• We can transcend time

  • We can talk, learn, and read about the past, present, and future through using words

• We can transcend space

  • We can talk, learn, and read about any place and can refer to any place in any time

• We can build and maintain relationships

• We can satisfy our human needs

  • Includes physical maintenance, safety, social interaction, self-esteem, and self-actualization

Disadvantages of Verbal Communication

• Words can evoke different images and meaning in people

  • There are no accurate ways to assess the meaning that others assign to words

• A single word can evoke more than one meaning within the language code itself

  • 500 of the most commonly used words have over 14,000 dictionary definitions

• Words are limited in terms of how precisely they can represent our ideas and feelings

  • Words often generalize thoughts and emotions which can make it difficult to express the individuality of someone’s ideas and sentiments

• Each communicator uses words both connotatively and denotatively at the same time

  • It’s never clear which meaning (if its either) the communicator is giving more emphasis to 

Language

A collection of symbols that are governed by certain rules and meant to convey messages between people. Also known as “verbal symbols.” 

Denotative Meaning

The official dictionary definition a culture gives to words

Connotative Meaning

A more personal, historical, emotional meaning given to words. They make remind people of a memory or invoke emotions.

This can be from individual feelings about words, small group usage of words, co-cultural (sub-cultural) experiences and history of words, and cultural history with words.

Culture examples: Latino, Muslim, Japanese

Sub-culture examples: geek culture, youth culture, interests, jobs

Nonverbal Communication

The exchange of information through everything but words

Such as tone of voice, posture, eye contact, gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc.

Polarized Words

Symbols that are often used to describe people, events, places, and objects in opposite extremes. They are often used for exaggeration. (Named because of the use of polar opposite kinds of words.)

These words ignore the middle ground between extremes to describe things.

Examples include best-worst, wonderful-horrible, fat-skinny

Clichés

Overused words/phrases that eventually become predictable and lose meaning and effectiveness over time.

Examples include “have a good day,” “take it easy,” and “been there, done that.”

Euphemisms

Ways to say something in a different and more pleasant way to substitute words that seem unpleasant or offensive. They are also used to disguise something.

They can lessen resistance, gain alliances, and avoid confrontations. They can also fog the sender’s meaning.

Examples are “revenue enhancement” for taxes, and “reduction in force” for layoffs.

Abstract Words

Words that are broad in scope and tend to include many items in the concept. They are usually vaguer, less specific, and often lump things together and may lead to stereotyping.

Examples include “tool” or “suburb”.

Concrete Words

Words that are more specific in terms of what they are describing and can narrow down the number of items being referred to.

Examples include “desk” over “furniture”, “hammer” over “tool”, and “football” over sports.

Judgmental Words

Stresses personal reactions and evaluations. Tends to direct the receiver from the thing being described to the sender’s subjective view on it. These words can be vague and abstract and since they are strongly based on individual perception, there is greater potential for defensiveness in the receiver.

Examples include “This term paper is pathetic.”

Descriptive Words

Stresses observable traits in an external reality. These words focus the receivers’s attention to the thing being described instead of the sender’s reaction to it. These words are nonjudgmental, neutral, and often more concrete.

Examples include “This term paper is two pages long and has no bibliography.”

Restrictive Words

These words suggest a considerable degree of certainty on the sender’s part. This may imply (intended or not) that the receiver must express agreement.

Examples include “should,” “must,” “always,” and “never.”

Unrestrictive Words

These words suggest a less rigid point of view and are more tentative. They do not demand immediate agreement from the receiver.

Examples include “perhaps,” “maybe,” “could,” “might.”

Statements of Fact

Difficult to define and not necessarily just “true” statements. Characteristics include:

• Considered to be accurate perceptions of the world around us 

  • “oranges are round”

• Not necessarily absolute truths. Some facts cannot always be proven and other may change with new information

  • Saying “the world is flat” in 1492 was a statement of fact

• Often considered to be facts because the general public accepts them as true

  • “there are seven continents”

• Sometimes based on the common experiences of the communicators

  • “we had a communication test on Friday”

• Sometimes accepted because of the credibility of the source

  • “Surgeon General says that smoking causes cancer”

Statements of Inference

Based on assumptions we make about the world around us. It may be true, but most are not considered to be as valid or certain as statements of fact. Also leads to not listening to opposing view points. Characteristics include:

• They are conclusions we make based on observed events or information that we receive

  • “I can tell by Jane’s red face that she’s been exercising”

• Two people may draw different conclusions from the same event

  • “Bill Clinton was a great president”

  • “Bill Clinton was a terrible president”

• Require no degree of authority or credibility. May be uttered by anyone at any time

  • “The Cubs will win the pennant next year.”

• Likelihood of accuracy decreases as more inferences and assumptions are made

  • “I think that Elvis lives in Affton, drives a Honda, and raises chinchillas in his basement.”

• May or may not be accurate

  • “I’m going to pass this class”

Paraphrasing

Descriptive restatement of someone else’s message using your own words. It is not repetition, but an effort to improve understanding by relating what you interpreted from the other person’s message. This is useful in conflict situations and provides a way to encourage listening over attacking.

An example would be to paraphrase “You left your dirty clothes on the floor again,” to “You seem to think that I’m not carrying my own weight.”

Polarized vs. Less Extreme

Polarized - Exaggerated

Less Extreme - Not as exaggerated

Sexist vs. Non-Sexist

Sexist - sexist language

Non-Sexist - avoid sexist language

Assertiveness vs. Collaborative

Assertiveness - Clear and direct wording which could involve speaking up in a meeting, being forthright about accomplishments, or making direct statements.

Collaborative - Encourages people to think together without treating any one person’s opinion as dominant

Responsible vs. Blaming

Responsible - taking responsibility for your actions

Blaming - blaming other people or things for something

Positive vs. Negative Self Concept

Positive - more acceptance and less defensiveness

Negative - critical, defensive, aggressive, etc.

Denotative vs. Connotative

Denotative - dictionary definitions

Connotative - emotional and personal meanings given to words

Dialect

A version of the same language that includes different words and meanings

Coordinated management of meaning (CMM)

People co-create meaning in the process of communicating with one another

Semantic Rules

Governs guidelines about meaning of specific words.

Such as “glue” means sticking things together and you wear a “shoe” on your foot.

Phonological Rules

Governs how words are pronounced in a language.

Syntactic Rules

Governs the structure of a language and how words are arranged.

Such as “Have you the cookies brought” is acceptable in German but not in English.

Pragmatic Rules

Helps people collectively do things with language

Such as giving comfort, offering advice, and joking

This helps you know when to laugh, when to stay quiet, and how to act at work versus at home.

Equivocal Language

Words that have more than one dictionary definition

Equivocation

Deliberately vague statement that can be interpreted in many different ways

Slang

Casual and changing language used by a group of people in a similar co-culture or other group. It defines insiders and outsiders and also consists of regionalisms (terms used and understood by people from a small geographic area).

Jargon

A technical and specialized vocabulary used by people with common backgrounds and experiences. Such as “AWOL” (absent without leave) in the military or “GSW” (gunshot wound) in a hospital emergency room.

Altruistic Lies

Deception intended to be unmalicious or even helpful to the receiver.

Evasions

A deliberately vague statements to avoid telling the entire truth.

Self-Serving Lies

Attempts to manipulate the listener into believing something that is untrue.

Emotive Language

Opinion statements that are meant to stir up strong emotional reactions and are based on emotional fervor  over rational thought.

Fallacy of Ad Hominem

An attack on the person rather than the issue at hand.

Microaggressive Language

Subtle, everyday messages that (intended or not) stereotype or demean people on the basis of race, gender, ethnicity, religion, appearance, etc.

Microresistance

Everyday behaviors that call attention to hurtful language and stereotypes.

Implicit Bias

Prejudices and stereotypes that people harbor without consciously thinking about them.