AICE PSYCH UNIT 1

Experimental research studies tend to have:

Aim/Purpose

• Theoretical Background/Reasoning

• Hypothesis

• IV/DV, sample, data collection technique, etc

• Procedure

• Results

• Conclusions/Discussions

Example of an Experimental Study

Purpose: An investigation into the possible effects of different student seat placement in class (front

or back of the room) in relation to student test scores.

• IV- independent variable- variable that is manipulated by experimenter

• In this example, the seat assignment would be the IV as the researcher is manipulating

where the student sits in the classroom (front or back of the room)

• DV- dependent variable- the variable that is being measured

• In this example, the test score of the student in the front would be compared to test score

of the student in the back of the room assignment

Hypothesis

an predicted outcome about what effect the IV will have on the DV

Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis-

statement that one IV will have a greater influence on the DV

• “Ps who are assigned to the front of the class will score better on the test compared to Ps

who are assigned to the back of the class or Ps who are in the control group”

• This is the usually the most common type of hypothesis

Non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis-

statement that there will be an influence of the IV on the

DV, but without specific prediction

• “There will be a difference in Ps’ scores based on where you sit in the classroom”

Null Hypothesis-

a testable statement saying that there will be no difference/correlation b/w the IV

and DV OR that the difference/correlation is simply due to chance

• “There will not be an influence of seating in the classroom for Ps’ test scores”

• “A difference in seating assignment and test scores will be due to chance”

A laboratory experiment

A type of study where the researcher has the most control (but not absolute) of conditions with the

manipulation of an IV and measurement of a DV to determine cause and effect

• Sometimes found using large and expensive scientific equipment

• Example of a lab experiment

• Bandura (1961) study randomly assigned pre-school students to an aggressive group, a non-

aggressive group, or control group. After going through the observing phases, the Ps were

given toys to play with and were measured to see if their behavior was the same as the

models’ behavior

Advantages of lab studies

manipulation of variables makes determining cause and effect easier

• more control of extraneous variables

• the use of standardized procedures and operationalized variables make replication easier

Disadvantages of lab studies

too much control can create artificial conditions which in turn produce artificial results

• lowers ecological validity and mundane realism

• demand characteristics are most commonly found in this type

A field experiment is:

conducted in the Ps’ everyday setting (such as classroom, mall, street, etc.)

• an experiment where subjects may not know they are being observed

• maintains the features of an IV and DV

• example- Piliavin (1969) took place in a subway where stooges were ‘drunk’ or ‘ill’ and purposely

‘fell’ to observe helping behavior from those on the subway

Advantages of field experiments:

it may tell us more about real life because the behaviors are “natural”

• it maintains many of the features of an experiment (like IV/DV)

Disadvantages of field experiments:

more difficult to determine cause and effect (as other issues may have led to the outcome)

• may be difficult to replicate

Repeated Measures Design

A design where each participant is exposed to more than one level of the IV

• Such as sitting in the front of the class for one test and then sitting in the back for another

Advantages of repeated measures

controls participant variables because every participant is exposed to ALL levels of the IV

• requires less Ps because each participant serves as his/her own control group

Disadvantages of repeated measures

some variables cannot be repeated

• (e.g. you can’t make someone do a task as a freshman than as a senior)

• may require replicated equipment or word lists which can lead to increased errors

Independent Groups Design

A design where each participant is in just one group so that each P only gets one level of the IV

• Such as the Bandura (1961) study where each child went through the process in either the

aggressive, non-aggressive, or control group

Advantages of independent groups design

eliminates ordering effects

• lowers risk of demand characteristics by Ps

Disadvantages of independent groups design

twice the number of Ps needed

• doesn’t control for participant variables

Matched Pair design (really an add-on to independent or repeated)

A design where Es try to match as many subject variables as possible (age, IQ, race, etc.) ahead of

time to make the groups ‘as equal to each other’ as possible

• For example, in the Bandura (1961) study, Bandura had the Ps matched for levels of aggression that

they showed before being in the study

• For example, they tried to make sure the same number of low, middle, and high aggressive kids

were in the different groups to remove different aggression levels as an extraneous variable

Advantages of matched pairs design

Participant variables are controlled because they are matched

• Achieves this without the ordering effects of repeated measures

Disadvantages of matched pairs design

difficult to truly match across all subject variables

• can be time consuming and/or expensive

Research Sampling Techniques

Sampling techniques can vary and is based upon the type of research needed

Opportunity sampling-

using sample that is available at that moment (such as on a subway)

• Allows for a faster collection of Ps to conduct a study

Self-selecting sample-

comprised of volunteers from advertisements or similar

• Allows for a target population, such as asking for seniors only for a school function

Random sample

Ps selected based upon randomly pulling names from a sampling frame (all possible Ps)

• In this technique, everyone has an equal chance of being selected

Types of Data

Primary data-

collected personally by the researcher(s)

• Enables certain data to be collected, increasing reliability & validity

• May be time-consuming & expensive, can be difficult gaining Ps, & may be influenced/biased

• Can include: Questionnaires/surveys, interviews, content analysis & semiology, experiments

Secondary data-

already exists in forms of records, pictures, stories, stats, other research, etc.

• Faster & easier to collect, may be only type available, official stats help reliability & validity

• May not always fit the need/definition of the research, interviews/stories may be unreliable

• Can include: Official statistics, pictures, stories/folklore

Non-Experimental Research- Correlational Studies

When manipulating an IV is not practical or ethical, researchers instead look for correlations (without conducting an experiment, we can simply look at records or similar)

Correlation-

a ‘causal’ relationship as one (or more) variable influences another variable

• For example, investigating if there is a correlation b/w dress code and GPA

• Worldwide research reveals that schools with a dress code (of uniform) have students with

higher GPAs

• However, it would be impossible to conclude that the increase GPA is strictly due to this

uniform dress code as there are multiple other factors that can contribute

Positive correlation-

a relationship in which an increase in one variable leads to an increase in the

other- or a decrease & decrease- key is that both variables go in the SAME direction

• The increase in temperature has a positive correlation to an increase in ice cream sold (or a

decrease in temp leads to a decrease in sales)

Negative correlation-

relationship in which one variable increases/decreases leading to a inverse

increase/decrease in the other- they go OPPOSITE directions

• The decrease in temperature outside leads to an increase in sales of hot cocoa

• The increase in gas prices leads to a decrease in driving

Non-Experimental Research- Questionnaires

Self-Report Methods

have the subjects themselves report on their feelings, memories, or experiences-accomplished through surveys and/or interviews

Surveys/Questionnaires

a form of self-report whereby the Ps read the questions themselves and fill out answers (typically on paper or using a phone/computer)

Open-ended Questions-

allow for the Ps to expand on ideas in more depth

Close-ended Questions-

simple yes/no, t/f, m/c or number scale questions provide more

quantitative data that does not allow for Ps to explain their thoughts

• Close-ended questions often use a Likert scale with 1 to 7 ratings (with 1 very unlikely or completely disagree and 7 very likely or completely agree)

Non-Experimental Research- Interviews

Interviews-

self-report methods where the Es ask the questions

Structured

interviews use pre-prepared questions and all the Ps receive the same questions in the same order with no variation

Unstructured

interviews do not use pre-prepared questions. Questions are determined by how the discussion goes

Semi-structured

interviews contain some of both of the above. They often start with pre-prepared questions but then allow the Es to go where the Ps responses take them

Non-Experimental Research- Self- Report Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages of Self-Reports

• Ps may be able to express feelings and explain their behavior

• Data can be rich

• Closed-ended questions are easy to score

Disadvantages of Self-Reports

Closed-ended questions limit what the Ps can say

• Ps might give answers that are socially desirable (say what they think the Es want to hear)

• Always possibility of Ps not telling the truth or purposely misleading the researcher(s)

• Possibility of Ps completing it without much thought/attention

• Interviewing techniques often take a bit of finesse in leading

Non-Experimental Research- Case Studies

Case Studies-

a detailed piece of research involving a single unit (a person or small group)

• Allows us to explore unique situations (that would often by unethical to conduct an experiment on)

• Such as a case of finding a 8 year old child who had limited human contact and now we can

investigate how their development was impacted

• Usually conducted over longer periods of time

• Typically investigate from multiple manners- records, interviews, observations, etc.

Advantages of case studies

Often finds info from a small number of people (or a unique individual) that hopefully is generalized to a larger number of people (like Genie the Wild Child)

• Studied over time so gets a more detailed picture

Disadvantages of case studies

Often is not as generalizable

• Relationships between Es and Ps can become very close

Non-Experimental Research- Observations

Observations

data collected by watching or participating with Ps with the aim of recording and understanding behavior/interactions

Non-participant Observation

Es do not become involved in the situation

• Yule (1986) observed how mothers treat their children in public places

Participant Observation

takes place in a natural environment of the Ps where the Es actually

become part of the community

• Rosenhan (1974) observed the treatment of patients in mental hospitals

Overt observation-

those being studied are aware of this fact as the Es (with permission) often join

in the behavior or observe without interference

• Such as journalists investigating the life of soldiers during war

Hawthorne effect- ppl may behave a certain way knowing that they are being observed

Covert observation-

those being studied are unaware of this fact

• Such as undercover police investigations in gangs

• Aside from ethical issue of deception, may pose a threat to the well-being of the researcher

entering, during, and/or after the data collection period

Advantages of Observation

Behavior can be more natural, especially in non-participant and/or covert observations

• The data can be rich and provide more examples and insight

Disadvantages of observation

Ps may not get the chance to explain why they behaved in a certain way

• Might be difficult to replicate, especially in participant and covert observations

• Observers have high chances of missing the recording of data and/or may interpret it incorrectly

(Human) Ethics in Research Studies

Defined-

Defined- a set of rules & regulations that are designed to protect Ps in sociological studies

• Informed Consent- Ps are given the option to participate and told all relevant information/aims

about the study

• Basically, the Ps should be informed with what an average person would want to know

• May not be always possible as to avoid demand characteristics and other extraneous

variables (such as in a field study)

Deception-

Ps should not be deceived as to the aim of the study and other aspects that may be

misleading (such as a stooge falling over)

• However, in some cases, deception is NEEDED to avoid demand characteristics and such

• If deception is used, Ps should be debriefed as to what the truths are

Harm-

the ‘risks’ of participating in the study should be no greater than everyday life as to pose

them physical harm or mental harm

• This can be short-term (while in the study) or long-term (after the study concludes)

Right to withdraw (RTW)-

participants must be given the right to leave the experiment during or

after data collection without penalty

• Thus, data for the P will not be used in the calculated results then

• Not always possible- like in a field study or cases when it is part of the actual study

(Milgram)

Debriefing-

at the end of the study, Ps are told what has happened, asked if there are any concerns,

and given explanations as needed

• Such as if they were deceived, the Es would explain why they were deceived and what they

were really investigating instead (such as obedience in Milgram)

Confidentiality-

Ps’ data & personal information must be confidential as not to reveal their identity

• Use of pseudonyms, ‘Participant 1,’ or similar non-descript data recording

Strengths of conducting unethical studies

Knowledge gained from the study may be valuable, so in some cases minor ethical violations (such as

deception) are necessary (such as ends justifying the means)

• If the Ps do not know they are part of a study or the true purpose of the study, they are less likely to

display demand characteristics which would make the behavior more natural

• Sometimes minor unethical studies (like field studies) help to create more ecologically valid situations

where we can see more natural behavior

Weaknesses of conducting unethical studies

May lead to possible harm (physical/mental and/or short-term/long-term)

• This may discourage future participation in other studies from Ps