Combined chapter 1-4

Individual Differences

Individual Differences

refers to the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in personal characteristics

Surface- Level Diversity

the mix of individual differences in organizations creates workforce diversity

Deep- Level Diversity

personalities, values, and attitudes- are more psychologically innate and less immediately visible

Self- Concept

the view individuals have of that it's important to have a strong sense of self

Self- Awareness

being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalities, and so on

Awareness of Others

being aware of these same things in others

Self- Esteem

a belief about one's own worth based on an overall self-evaluation

Self- Efficacy

individual's belief in his or her ability

Prejudice

form of negative, irrational, and superior options and attitudes toward persons who are different from ourselves

Discrimination

occurs when minority members are unfairly treated and denied the full benefits of organizational membership

Glass Ceiling Effect

an invisible barrier or "ceiling" that prevents women and minorities from rising above a certain level of organizational responsibility

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and color, as well as national origin, sex, and religion

Leaking Pipeline

a phrase coined to describe how women have not reached the highest levels of organizations

Leadership Double Bind

describes how women are seen as weak in leadership if they conform to the feminine stereotype and also weak if they go against it

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

act addresses rights of individuals with disabilities in employment and public accommodations

Universal Design

the practice of designing products, buildings, public spaces, and programs to be usable by the greatest number of people

Diversity Issues in the Workplace:

-race and ethnicity

-gender

-sexual orientation

-age

-ability

Social Identity Theory

perception of self and others based on the social groups that one belongs to

In- Group Membership

identifies as being a member (belonging)

Out- Group Membership

social group with which an individual does not identify (feel excluded)

Personality

characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others

Big Five Personality Traits:

-extraversion: outgoing, sociable, assertive

-agreeableness: good-natured, cooperative, trusting

-conscientiousness: responsible, dependable, careful

-emotional stability: relaxed, secured, unworried

-openness to experience: don't mind uncertainty

Social Traits

surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears to others when interacting in various social settings

Problem- Solving Style

reflects the way someones goes about gathering and evaluating information in solving problems and making decisions

Personal Conception Traits

represent various ways people think about their social and physical setting, their major beliefs, and personal orientations toward a range of issues

Locus of Control

the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces

Proactive Personality

the disposition that identifies whether or not individuals act to influence their environments

Authoritarianism

tends to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority (strict to rules)

Dogmatism

sees the world as a threatening place

Machiavellianism

the practice of viewing and manipulating others purely for personal gain

Self- Monitoring

reflects a person's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational (environmental) factors

Emotional Adjustment Traits

indicate how one handles emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts, such as impatience, irritability, or aggression

Type A Orientation

characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism

Type B Orientation

characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in relation to daily events

Stress

state of internal tension experienced by individuals who perceive themselves as facing extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities

Work Stressors:

-task demands

-role ambiguities

-role conflicts

-ethical dilemmas

-interpersonal problems

-career developments

-physical setting

Eustress

constructive stress that results in positive outcomes for the individual

Distress

destructive stress that is dysfunctional for the individual

Job Burnout

shows itself as loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job because of stressful working conditions

Coping

a response or reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened

Problem- Focused Coping

in practical ways which tackles the problem or stressful situation that is causing stress, consequently directly reducing the stress

Emotion- Focused Coping

try to regulate the emotions drawn forth by stress

Personal Wellness

invoices the pursuit of one's job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program

Values

broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes

Terminal Values

reflect a person's preferences concerning the "ends" to be achieved

Instrumental Values

reflect a person's beliefs about the "means" to achieve desired ends

Power Distance

willingness of a culture to accept status and power differences among its members

Uncertainty Avoidance

cultural tendency toward discomfort with risk and ambiguity

Individualism/Collectivism

tendency of a culture to emphasize either individual or group interests

Masculinity/Femininity

tendency of a culture to value stereotypical masculine or feminine traits

Long-term/Short-term Orientation

tendency of a culture to emphasize values associated with the future, such as thrift and persistence, or values that focus largely on the present

Ecological Fallacy

acting with the mistaken assumption that a generalized cultural value applies equally to all members of the culture

Stigma

a phenomenon whereby an individual is rejected as a result of an attribute that is deeply discredited by his or her society

Perception

process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from the world around them

Characteristics of the Perceiver

a person's past experiences, needs or motives, personality, values, and attitudes may all influence the perceptual process

Characteristics of the Setting

the physical, social, and organizational context can influence the perception process

Characteristics of the Perceived

object, or event are also important in the perception process

Selective Screening

consciously deciding what information to pay attention to and what to ignore

Controlled Processing

carefully collecting information about a system, process, person, or group of people in order to make necessary decisions

Schemas

cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about a concept or stimulus

Script Schema

knowledge framework that describes the appropriate sequence of events in a given situation

Person Schema

sort people into categories- types or groups, in terms of similar perceived features

Prototypes

pre-set bundles of features expected to be characteristics of people in certain categories of roles

Impression Management

the systematic attempt to behave in ways that will create and maintain desired impressions in the eyes of others

Stereotype

occurs when we identify someone with a group or category, and then use the attributes perceived to be associated with the group or category to describe the individual

-ability stereotypes

-age stereotypes

Halo Effect

occurs when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of that individual or situation

Selective Perception

the tendency to single out those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one's needs, values, or attitudes

Projection

the assignment of one's personal attributes to other individuals

Contrast Effect

the meaning or interpretation of something is arrived at by contrasting it with a recently occurring event or situation

Self- Fulfilling Prophecy

the tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which you expected to find in the first place (perception, attribution, and social learning)

Attribution

the process of developing explanations or assigning perceived causes for events

Attribution Theory

understand how people perceive the causes of events, asses responsibility for outcomes, and evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved (internally or externally)

Three Factors of Attribution Theory:

1. distinctiveness- considers how consistent a person's behavior is across different situations

2. consensus- takes into account how likely all those facing a similar situation are to respond in the same way

3. consistency- concerns whether an individual responds the same way across time

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency to underestimate the influence of situational factors and to overestimate the influence of personal factors when evaluating someone else's behavior

Self- Serving Bias

the tendency to deny personal responsibility for performance problems but to accept personal responsibility for performance success

Social Learning Theory

describes how learning take place through the reciprocal interactions among people, behavior, and environment

Reinforcement

the administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior

Classic Conditioning

form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior

Operant Conditioning

process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences

Law of Effect

behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be related, whereas behavior that results in unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated

Extrinsic Rewards

positively valued work outcomes given to the individual by another person

Contrived Rewards

pay increase and cash bonuses

Natural Rewards

verbal praise and recognition

Organizational Behavior Modification

use of extrinsic rewards to systematically reinforce desirable work behavior and to discourage unwanted work behavior

Postitive Reinforcement

administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood that desirable behavior will be repeated

Law of Contingent Reinforcement

used to enforce the notion that there is some type of consequence for both good and bad behaviors

Law of Immediate Reinforcement

reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior

Shaping

power of positive reinforcement can be mobilized, the creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of a successive approximations of it

Continuous Reinforcement

administers a reward each times a desired behavior occurs

Intermittent Reinforcement

rewards behavior only periodically

Negative Reinforcement

a response or behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus

Punishment

intends to discourage undesirable behavior

Extinction

the withdrawal of reinforcing consequences in order to weaken undesirable behavior

Emotions

strong positive or negative feelings directed toward someone or something (arise from internal sources, and social emotions derive from external sources)

Affect

range of feelings in the forms of emotions and moods that people experience

Emotional Intelligence

an ability to understand emotions and manage relationships effectively

4 Essential Emotional Intelligence Competencies

1. Self- Awareness= the ability to understand our emotions and their impact on us and others

2. Social- Awareness= the ability to empathize and understand the emotions of others

3. Self- Management= self- regulation; thinking before acting and staying in control of our emotions

4. Relationship Management= rapport; making use of emotions to build and maintain good relationships

Self- Conscious Emotions

arise from internal sources

Social Emotions

derive from external forces

Mood

generalized positive and negative feelings or states of mind