who conducted the study of the STM's duration
Peterson & Peterson (1959)
study of the duration of the STM
24 students in 8 trials
a consonant syllable
3-digit number which they count back from
were asked to stop in 3-18 intervals
3s = 80% recall
18s 3% recall
suggests STM has a duration of 18s til maintenance rehearsal
study of duration of the LTM
392 particpants aged 14-74 - yearbooks obtained
photo recogntion 2) free recall 15 yrs = 1) 90% 2) 60% 48+ yrs = 1) 70% 2) 30% potentially can last a liftetime
who conducted the study of the LTM's duration
Bahrick et al (1975)
who conducted the study of the STM's capacity
Jacobs 1887
study into STM capacity
measured digit span of 4 digits increased one if recalled correctly
findings from the STM study into capacity
mean span for digits = 9.3 mean span for letters = 7.3
who conducted the study of chunking and span of memory
Miller 1956
what did miller (1956) observe
things in everyday practice come in 7
what did miller suggest about the capacity of STM
7 (+/-2) and chunking into 5s makes easier recall
what is the capacity of the LTM
potentially infinite
what is the capacity of STM
7 +/- 2
Strength of research into capacity
the 1887 study has been replicated therefore even if confounding varibale of distraction it has temproal validty
limitation of research in capacity
overestimates chunks > cowen (2001) suggets STM has a capacity of 4 +/1 is more appropriate
what is coding
the way infromation is stored in the memory in different forms
who studied coding of memory
Baddeley (1966)
what was the study into how the memory is coded
gave 4 different lists to 4 groups acoustically dis/imilar and semantically dis/imilar acoustically similar had the immediate worst recall after 20 minutes recall was worse with semantic
how is the STM coded
acoustically
how is LTM coded
semantically
strength of coding research
shows that there is seperate memory stores for S and L TM
limitation of coding research
artificial stimuli has been used > limits the application
what is the msm
describes flow between three permanent storage systems of memory SR, STM and LTM
who created the msm
Atkinson & Shiffrins (1968)
what is the sensory register
where information from the senses is stored, duration of half a second, It is modality-specific
what is the STM
coded acoustically, duration of 18s and capacity of 5/9 items, must rehearse it for it to go into LTM
what is the LTM
coded semantically, potentially last forever and has a unlimited capacity
strengths of MSM
Research support > Baddely (1966) acoustically/semantic dis/imilar word study and Bahrick (1975) yearbook study
Limitations of MSM
Shallice & warrington (1970) different stores in STM > KF = bad acoustic but good iconic elaboratibe rehearsal > Craik & Warrington agrued that type was more important > MSM doesnt really explain
what is the WMM
explanation of how STM is organised and functions when temporarily storing information
who created the WMM
Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
what are the 4 main components of the WMM
Central excecutive, phonological loop, Visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer
what is the central excutive
acts in a supervisory role for the rest of the slave systems, monitors incoming data and distributes to the slave systems, focuses/divides our attention.
what is the phonological loop
deals with auditory information, coded acoustically, preserves the order in which information arrives 2 subsystems: auditory process (maintenance rehearsal) and phonological store (stores the words you hear)
Visuospatial sketchpad
stores visual information and has limited capacity 2 subsystems: visual cache (stores visual data) and the inner scribe (records the arrangement of objects in the visual field).
Episodic Buffer
temporary store which maintains time sequencing and intergates info from the slave systems
Strength of WMM
clincial evidence > shallice and warrington (1970) KF = poor STM for auditory, good STM for iconic (PL damaged but not VSS) Dual task importance > Baddely (1975) unable to do same type of task as they compete for the same subsytem
Limitations of WMM
Lack of clarity over CE > recognises the importance but least understood, may be separate componenets Artificial & controlled > studies of WMM lack mudance realism
who proposed the 3 LTM stores
Tulving (1985)
3 LTM stores
Procedural, Semantic, episodic
what is the episodic store of the memory
refers to our ability to recall events, record of personal experiences, time stamped and detailed
what is the semantic store of the memory
our shared knoelege of the world, immense collection of material over a range of topics, not time stamped/personal and less vunerable to distorion
what is the procedural store of the memory
memory of actions/skills, no concious effort and difficult to explain
Strengths of types of LTM
Clinical evidence > Clive wearing (infection) was able to play piano (procedual unaffected) but episodic memory serverly damaged Research application > understanding LTM = Belleville imporved episodic memeroy through intervention, peformed better if trained
limitation of types of LTM
Conflicting neuroimaging evidence > Buckner & Peterson (1996) reviewed location of the semantic/episodic memory
semantic left side of prefrontal cortex Episodic on the right side of prefrontal cortex Tulving et al (1994) left prefrontal cortex = encoding of episodic memory + right with episodic retrieval
explanations for forgetting
interfernce & retrieval failure
interference theory
when 2 pieces of information disrupt each other resulting in forgetting
what are the 2 types of interference
proactive and retroactive
what is proactive interference
when a older memory interfers with a newer memory
what is retroactive interference
when a newer memory interfers with a older memory
what are the effects of similarity
PI = previous words make it harder fro newer ones to be stored RI = new info overwrites precious info because of similarity
who studied similarity
McGeoch & McDonald (1931)
study into similarity
Ps learnt list of 10 words then learnt new list of either synonym, antonym, 3 digit, constant, unrealted words Similar words had worst recall
strengths of interfefer
baddeley & hitch (1977) > rugby players, recall names of teams, the players that played most had worst recall
counterpoint = interference is rare/retrieval failure is more likely
Support from drug studies > list learned under diazepam + recall week later was poor, list learned before diazepam + later recalled was better = drug improved recall of material learned beforehand Wixted (2004) = drug prevents new information from reaching the processing part of memories
Limitations of interference
temporary/can be overcome via cues/hints Tulving & Psoka (1971) gave ps list of words organised into categories one list at a time = recall 70% for the first list but became worse as the learned the others (PI) At the end they were given name of list = 70% again = interference causes temporary loss of accessibility to material that is still in LTM
what is retrieval failure
forgetting due to insufficent cues
encoding specificity principle
Tulving (83) a cue needs to be present at encoding + retrieval
two types of retrieval failure
context + state dependent forgetting
what is context-state forgetting
recall is dependent on external cues
what is state-dependent forgetting
recall is dependent on internal cues
who conducted research into context-dependent forgetting
Godden & Baddeley (1975)
studying into context-dependent forgetting
deep sea divers, given a list of words, learnt on/off land + recalled on/off land recall 40% lower in non-matched = external cues different from cues at recall
who conducted research into state-dependent forgetting
Carter & Cassaday (1998)
what was the research for state dependent forgetting
hayfever (physological internal cue) if different = recall worse
strengths of retrieval failure
real-world applications = retrieval cues can help everyday forgetting (Baddeley suggests cues help us remember) research support = Esyunck & Keane argue that retrieval failure is main explanation for LTM forgetting > but context needs to be very different
limitations of retrieval failure
Depends on the type of memory tested > Godden & Baddeley (1980) replicated diver experiment but used recognition = no context-dependent effect > retrieval failure only applies to recalling
Factors effecting EWT
misleading information (including leading questions & post-event discussion) and anxiety
types of misleading information
leading questions & post-event discussion
who conducte the study into how leading questions
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
what was the study into leading questions
45 p, watched car accident, crictial questions given different verbs condacted = 31.8 and smashed = 40.5
what is response bias explanation
the use of leading question has no real affect other than encourages them to choose a higher speed
what is subsititute explanation
Loftus and Palmer in a 2nd experiment suggetsed that the wording changed the memory = of they heard smashed = saw glass critical verb can alter events
strengths of leading questions
control over confounding variable as the study was lab based Real world application = recommed that it is not safe to convict on 1 EWT
Limtations of leading questions
Artificial/lacks mundane realism = very different to experiencing it first-hand, Forester points out that response in research has very little impact Evidence against substitutions = Sutherland & Hayne, clip then misleading question, recall was better for central details than peripheral, resistance to misleading info and memories weren't distorted
Who studied post-event discussion
Gabbert et al (2003)
study into post event discussion
P in pairs, watched clip from different angles, discussed 71% mistakenly recalled aspects they did not see
what are the results of post-event discussion
memory conformity or memory contamination
Memory conformity
Witness go along with each other for social approval
memory contamination
when discussed their memory becomes altered and combine the (mis)information with their own
A03 of misleading information
Evidence against memory conformity > Skagerberg & Wright, 2 clips blonde/brown hair, discussed = medium brown hair > distored not conformed Foster = artifical scenarios
how can anxitey affect EWT
weapon focus or alertness
how does anxitey negatively affect EWT
focuses on weapon on reducing recall to events
who conducted a study into weapon focus
Johnson & Scott (1976)
what was the study for weapon focus
Low anxitey = sitting room + pen + grease = recognition of man 49% out of 50 photos
High anxitey = argument + life + blood = recognition of man 33% tunnel theory = people have enhanced for central elements
strength of anxitey having a negative affect
Valentine and Mesout (2009), heart rate to divide participants into high and low groups, Anxiety disrupted ability to recall the actors face (labyrinth at london dungeons)
Limitations of anxitey having a negative affect
Pickel (1998) scissors, handgun, wallet, raw chicken (handheld item), hair salon video, EWT was worse on unsual condtion = unsualness not anxitey
how does anxitey improve alertness
Fight or flight response increases alertness improving memory for event
who conducted the study into anxitey imporving alertness
Yuille & Cutshall (1986)
study into anxitey imporving alertness
gun shop in Canada, shop owner shot thief, 13 witnesses took part, interviewed ⅘ months after incident + compared with original police interviews, t rate how stressed they felt/emotional problems since little changes in accuracy
what were the findings of Yuille & Cutshalls gunshop study
little change in accuracy > highest level of stress = 88% less stressed = 75% anxitey improves memory
strength of anxitey having a postive affect
Christian & Gubinette (1993) 58 witness, bank robbery, sweden, directly involved = 75% accurate
limitation of anxitey having a postive affect
Interviewed 4-15 months after No control over post-event discussion Effect on anxiety may have overwhelmed by post event and Lack of control over confounding variables
how was accuracy determinded in the gun shop study
by the number for details reported in each account
What is the cognitive interview
a method of interviewing eyewitnesses which use techniques based on psychological insights into how memory works
Who created the cognitive interview
Fisher & Geiselman (1992)
What are the four techniques
Report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order and change the perspective
why are they asked to report everything
it may trigger other important details/small details may be important
why are they asked to renstate the context
by returing to the orginal scene in their mind may reduce context-dependent forgetting
why are they asked to reverse the order
prevents people reporting their expectation and dishonesty
why are they asked to change perspective
prevents people reporting their expectations of events/schema of setting
who developed the enhanced cognitive interview
Fisher et al (1987)