Intro to Sociology Final (Modules 9,10,11)

urbanization

growth in the proportion of a nation’s population living in cities

megacities

urban areas with at least 10 million people

megaregions

chains of densely populated areas that extend over long stretches of space

globalization

movement of products, services, and information across national and continental boundaries

global cities

major urban areas that serve as nodes for the worldwide network of economic activity

social capital

tight connections that people form with each other through organizations, civic life, and strong social ties

urbanism

unique ways of life found in cities

subcultures

groups that hold values and engage in activities that separate them from wider society

social networks

various types of connections that individuals form with other people, no matter where they’re located

The Great Migration

movement of millions of African Americans, from 1900 to 1970, into cities outside the south

oral history

research method relying on interviews with people who recount personal narratives from the past

push and pull factors

forces that lead people to leave their original location and forces that draw them to their new destination, respectively

Chicago School of Urban Sociology

group of sociologists at the University of Chicago who had tremendous influence on the study of cities in the first half of the 20th century

human ecology

study of ways in which groups are sorted into environments that provide the best fit between the individual and the environment

ethnic enclave

section of a city where the local culture and labor market are dominated by a single ethnic group

rational choice theory

economic perspective that decisions are made by individuals acting in their own self-interest

world systems theory

view that capitalist exploitation creates conditions that push people to move, usually to the country that disrupts social and economic life in their home country

global neighborhoods

neighborhoods that contain at least three different racial or ethnic groups

legal violence

fear and harsh enforcement experienced by immigrants as a result of immigration policies

immigrant integration

process by which immigrants and their descendants integrate into American society

first generation

immigrants born in another country

second generation

U.S.-born children of immigrants

growth machine

powerful set of urban actors that come together to promote an agenda of population expansion and economic growth

gentrification

shift in the population of a community bringing in new residents who are more affluent or more educated than the original residents

concentrated poverty

neighborhoods with extremely high rates of poverty usually defined as at least 30% or 40% poor

economic segregation

degree to which poor live apart from the rich

residential segregation

degree to which different groups, typically classified by race, ethnicity, or class, live apart from each other in separate communities

white flight

migration of whites out of central city neighborhoods and into suburban communities

redlining

practice of outlining in red any sections of a city that were considered “risky” and rejecting loan applications in that area

suburban sprawl

expansion of the boundaries of suburbs farther from central cities

deviance

behaviors that violate social norms

norms

expectations for behavior

folkways

norms about customs, traditions, and etiquette

mores

more seriously protected norms that reflect the morals and values of a social group

laws

most seriously protected norms; codified and require specific enforcements

social control

ways societies try to influence members’ behavior to maintain social order

moral panics

overheated, short-lived periods of intense social concern about an issue

moral entrepeneurs

people who try to influence societies toward increased awareness of and concern over the violation of social norms

functionalist theories of deviance

theories that focus on potential social purposes that deviance serves

social cohesion

degree to which we identify with and maintain social rules and connections

normative

accepted and expected behavior

anomie

a social lack of morals and expectations for behavior that can lead to deviance

strain

stress that results from anomie

strain theory

functionalist theory that describes five adaptations to strain: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion

opportunity theory of deviance

functionalist theory that says delinquency is a function of opportunity and access to delinquent behavior

conflict theories of deviance

theories that ask about how rules and norms are shaped by power relations in society

worldview

set of shared values, beliefs, and understandings about how the world should be

hegemony

type of domination in which the powerful obtain the consent or support of the subordinated

stigma

a phenomenon in which a person is discredited and/or rejected by society because of an attribute they have

differential association

theory that deviance is learned through intimate personal contacts

control theory

theory that claims deviance arises from a weakening of social connections

labeling theory

theory that deviance is created through reactions to an act

criminology

study of crime and criminal behavior

crime

act that violates the penal code

penal code

written laws that govern behavior in particular jurisdiction

violent crime

crimes like homicide, robbery, assault, and sexual assault, which involve the use of physical force

property crime

theft that doesn’t involve the use of direct physical forces

street crime

violent crimes and property crimes that are more common in public spaces and often involve the police

white-collar crime

crimes like fraud, embezzlement, and other unethical acts or business practices that are typically not carried out on the street or in public spaces and don’t use physical force

criminal

person who violated penal code

social network

group of people linked together in a specific way

social bonds

connections and attachments to people and institutions in mainstream society

crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED)

strategy to reduce crime through the design of buildings and physical space

broken windows theory

theory of policing that argues that small signs of disorder lead to outbreaks of more serious crimes

homicide rate

number of homicides per 100,000 residents

culture of violence

the idea that the United States has a unique heritage in which settlers had to resort to violence to protect themselves and their property, creating a longstanding norm of violent behavior

relative deprivation

a feeling of falling behind while other people do better and better; Merton argued that this feeling creates strain, leading to crime

mass incarceration

expansion of imprisonment to a level not matched elsewhere in the world or at any previous point in U.S. history

the New Jim Crow

a book written by Michelle Alexander arguing that mass incarceration represents the latest in a series of institutions and policies designed to reinforce a racialized caste system in the United States

defund the police

the slogan of a movement to shift resources from police budgets to other agencies that provide services, like jobs programs or mental health treatment, to residents of a city

Black Lives Matter

movement devoted to, among other things, reducing police violence against African Americans

epidemiology

study of the frequency, patterns, and determinants of health-related states and events

health

state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease

health inequities

differences in health that arise due to unfair and unequal social forces

illness

the subjective experience of a disease, condition, or set of symptoms

infant mortality rate

number of deaths occurring before one year of age per 1,000 live births

life course

interconnected sequence and timing of socially-defined life events that unfold over a person’s through their own actions and behaviors

maternal and child health

subset of public health focused on mothers, infants, children, and adolescents

maternal morbidity

illness or disability directly related to pregnancy or childbirth

morbidity

a disease condition

mortality

death

pre-existing condition

disease or condition that exists prior to a particular event, such as pregnancy, or before a person enrolled in a health insurance plan

public health

field of study focused on the description and prevention of disease and illness

contested illness

illness that is disputed or questioned by medical experts

demography

study of features of human populations such as births, deaths, aging, and migration

disease

physical or mental disorder in the structure or function of the body

economic segregation

degree to which the poor live apart from wealthier groups

impairment

loss or diminishment of physical or mental function

labeling

assigning a disease or medical condition to an illness or set of symptoms

psychosomatic illness

illness that is considered the physical manifestation of a mental illness or stress

socially legitimate

consistent with the norms and values within a society

medical sociology

branch of sociology that deals with social and cultural features of health, illness, and medicine

medicalization

process by which ordinary experiences are defined in medical terms, or by which circumstances previously regulated by religion or the law come to be defined in medical terms

racial segregation

degree to which different racial and ethnic groups live apart

sick role

rights and responsibilities of a person who has a socially legitimate illness

social control

ways societies try to influence member’ behavior to maintain social order

socioeconomic status

social and economic standing, often measured through education, income, occupation, and wealth

stigma

characteristic of an individual or group that is seen as inferior or undesirable

Affordable Care Act

federal health care law, signed by President Obama, that expanded health insurance coverage

Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act

federal law requiring hospital emergency departments to stabilize or transfer people with medical emergencies or in labor, regardless of their health insurance status or ability to pay