Beliefs in Society Full Revision

What are types of religious definitions?

• Substantive

• Functional

• Constructionist

What is the substantive definitions of religion?

• Focus on the content of religious belief - Belief in the supernatural, holy texts, etc.

• Conform to the view that religion is a belief in God

• Exclusive

What is the functional definitions of religion?

• What does religion do for individuals and society?

• Doesn't conform to the view that religion is a belief in God

• Inclusive

What is the constructionist definitions of religion?

• Interpretivist approach

• How do individuals define religion?

• Interested in how definitions of religion are created, changed and fought over

• Don't conform to the view that religion is a belief in God

• Inclusive

What is Durkheim’s view on religion?

• Society is a system of interrelated parts

• Society has needs which are met by different institutions - Religion, media etc

What is the sacred and profane?

• Sacred - Things that are set apart, are surrounded by prohibitions and taboos and create feelings of awe

• Profane - Things that are mundane and ordinary

• The powerful feelings evoked by the sacred implies that it represents something of great power - Society

What is totenism?

• Believed that the essence of religion could be discovered by studying it in its simplest form in the simplest society

• The Arunta rituals around the Totem reinforce the group solidarity

• The totem represents the power of the society that the individuals rely on

What is collective conscience?

• Sacred symbols represent society's collective conscience

• Rituals reinforce this and maintain integration

• Rituals bind people together, reminding them that they are part of something bigger

What are cognitive functions of religion?

• Religion is the source of our ability to reason and think conceptually

• Religion is the origin of shared categories - space, time, etc. - that allow us to think and share ideas

• The splitting of clans gave the first ideas of classification

What are criticisms of Durkheim?

• Worsley: There isn't a clear division between the sacred and profane

• Explains integration within communities but not the conflict between
  them

• Postmodernists: Increasing diversity as fractured the collective conscience

What are psychological functions Malinowski?

• Religion provides psychological functions that promotes social solidarity

• Helps individuals cope with stress that could undermine solidarity

• Studied the Trobriand Islanders

Where is the outcome uncertain in the Trobraind islanders?

• Fishing in the Lagoon: No rituals as outcome is certain, and the situation is safe

• Fishing in the Ocean: Rituals as outcome is uncertain, and the situation is dangerous

• Religion bridges the gap between the controllable and uncontrollable

What are times of life crises?

• Events such as birth and death can cause disruptive changes in social groups

• Religion brings people together and explains why these happen

What are values and meaning according to Parsons?

• Religion helps people cope with uncertainty

• Creates and legitimates society's values: Religion sacralises values, thus promoting solidarity

• Provides a source of meaning: Religion answers unanswerable questions, helping people to adjust

What is civil religions according to Bellah?

• A belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society

• Integrates society in a way that individual religion can't

• Involves loyalty to the nation state and a belief in God = being a true
  American

What are functional alternatives?

• Non-religious beliefs and practices that perform the same functions as religion - communism, Nazism

• Ignores what makes religion distinct

What is the evaluation of functionalism?

• Emphasises the social nature of religion

• Ignores religion as a source of conflict and oppression

• Is civil religion really a religion?

What is the Marxist view of religion?

• Society is split into 2 classes: the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat

• Religion is a feature of a divided society and wouldn't be needed in a communist society

What is religion as an ideology?

• Religion distorts perceptions of reality to benefit the ruling class

• The class that controls the economic base also controls the production and distribution of ideas

• Religion used as a weapon to justify inequality and suffering

• Creates a false consciousness - A distorted view of reality so as to prevent revolution

• Lenin: 'Religion is a spiritual Gin, creating a mystical fog'

• Makes the ruling class's position appear divinely ordained

What is religion and alienation?

• Religion is a product of alienation

• Workers are alienated because they have no freedom to express their
  true nature

• Marx: 'Religion is the opium of the people, dulling their pain'

What is the evaluation of Marxism?

• Shows how religion may be a tool for oppression

• Ignores the positive aspects of religion

• Althusser: The concept of alienation is unscientific

• Neo-Marxists: Some religion helps to promote social change

What are feminist theories of religion?

Armstrong / Holm - Society is patriarchal

What is evidence of patriarchy?

• Religious organisations: Mainly male-dominated despite higher rates ot female participation

• Places of worship: Often segregate the sexes. Women's participation may be restricted

• Sacred texts: Largely feature male gods, female stereotypes and are largely interpreted and written by men

• Religious laws and customs: Women may have fewer rights. Religious influence on culture may lead to unequal treatment.

What are religious forms of feminism according Woodhead?

• Patriarchy may not be true for all religions

• Argues that the Hijab is liberating for women

• Colombia - Pentecostal groups are empowering for women

• Rinaldo - Piety Movements - Conservative and teach traditional ideas about women's dress, role and religiosity. Often supported by middle-class women with access to resources

What is religion as a conservative force?

• Religion is traditional, upholding traditional beliefs about society

• Functions to conserve things as they are

What are religions beliefs?

• Many religions oppose changes that would allow more freedom

• Catholic Church: Opposes divorce, abortion and gay marriage.
  Upholds family values, favouring the nuclear family

What are religions functions?

• Functionalists: Religion and consensus: Religion maintains social stability

• Marxism: Religion and capitalism: Religion prevents social change by justifying exploitation

• Feminists: Religion and Patriarchy: Religion is an ideology that legitimises patriarchy

What is religion as a force for change according to Weber?

• Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism

• Calvinist beliefs were the beginning of modern capitalism

What are calvinist beliefs?

• Pre-destination: God had decided who the elect would be, and nothing could change that fate

• Divine Transcendence: No one could claim to know the will of God, which caused Calvinists to feel an inner loneliness, which combined with predestination, caused a salvation panic

• This worldly Asceticism: Abstaining from luxury, denial whilst still being part of society

• Calling: Combined with the concept of Asceticism. Calvinists worked hard (wealth was a sign of being the elect), but any wealth made was put back into the businesses

What is hinduism and confucianism?

• Capitalism didn't take off in India and China because they lacked a belief like Calvinism

• Hinduism

  • Ascetic

  • Otherworldly: Followers’ focus was on the spiritual world, removed from mainstream society

• Confucianism

  • This worldly: Part of mainstream society

  • Not ascetic

What is the evaluation?

• Marxism: Overestimates the role of ideas and underestimates
  economic factors

• Tawney: Technological changes caused capitalism

• Capitalism didn't occur in every country where there was Calvinism

What is the American civil rights movements according to Bruce?

• Churches provided sanctuary and support

• Rituals and prayer unites members

• Ideological resource: Provided beliefs and practices that protestors could use as support

• Taking the moral high ground: Pointed out the hypocrisy of the white clergy preaching 'Love thy neighbour'

• Channelling dissent: Religion provides channels for expressing political dissent

• Acting as the honest broker: Provide a context for negotiation as both sides often respect churches

• Mobilising public opinion: Campaign for support across the whole country

What is the new christian right according to Bruce?

• Protestant fundamentalist

• Seek to take the USA back to god - divorce, homosexuality and abortion illegal

• Believes in the nuclear family

• Why has it been unsuccessful?

• Moral Majority = 15%

• Found it hard to work with other issues over the same issues

• Strong opposition

• Comparison to American civil rights - to be successful, beliefs have to be in line with the majority of society

What is Marxism religion and change?

• Relative autonomy - independence from the economic base

• Religion can have a dual character, prompting change as well as stability

• Marx: 'The soul of the soulless' and 'The heart of the heartless world'

• Engels: Religion inhibits change by disguising inequality, but it can also challenge the status quo

What is the principle of hope according to Bloch?

• Religion may inspire protest and revolution

• Religion is an expression of the principle of hope, which shows images of Utopia

• Utopian images show what needs changing

What is liberation theology?

• Emerged in the Latin American Catholic church

• Commitment to the poor and opposition to dictators

• Due to increased poverty and human rights abuses

• Praxis: Practical action guided by theory

• Condemned by Pope John Paul II for being too Marxist

• Church continues to defend democracy

• Maduro: An example of religiously inspired social change

What is the pentecostal challenge?

• Lehmann explains why Pentecostalism is now more popular among the poor in Latin America

• Liberation theology: offers an option for the poor

• Led by priests and nuns

• Radical solution to poverty - huge collective changes

• Pentecostalism: offers an option for the poor

• Led by the people themselves

• Conservative solution to poverty - individual self-improvement in private

What is the Millenarian movements?

• Believe that Christ will rule for 1000 years before the earth is changed into heaven for the group

• Appeals to the poor because of the promise of immediate improvement

• Worsley: Cargo cult felt deprived when cargo arrived for the colonists, believed it was for them, but had been redirected

• Worsley: The group was pre-political

• Engels: Represent the first awakening of the proletariat's self-consciousness

What is religion and hegemony according to Gramasci?

• Hegemony: Ideological domination

• Counter-Hegemony: An alternative image that the proletariat may develop

• Religion's dual character: Religion' ability to uphold and support the bourgeoisie

• Organic intellectuals: Clergy members acting as educators, leaders and organisers

What is religion and class conflict?

• Billings - coal miners vs textile workers study

• Religion can play a prominent oppositional role

• Can be called upon to defend the status quo or justify the struggle to change it.

  • Leadership

  • Organisation

  • Support

What is secularisation in Britain?

• 1851 census: over 40% attended church

• Some see the 19th Century as the golden age of religion

• Attendance in church has declined

• The average age of attendees has increased

• Greater religious diversity

• Wilson

  • Secularisation: The process whereby religious beliefs, institutions and practices have lost social influence

  • Western societies have been undergoing long-term secularisation

What is church attendance today?

• 5% attendance

• A very small proportion of children attend Sunday school

What is religious affiliation?

• Between 1983 and 2014, the percentage of adults with no religion rose from 1/3 to ½

• Those identifying as Christian fell by 1/3

• Anglicans more than halved

• Catholics increased slightly (due to immigration from Eastern Europe)

• Islam and other non-Christians also increased (immigration/birth rates)

• Other Christians remained static since 1983 - 17%

What is religious belief today?

• More people claim to hold Christian beliefs than attend church

• Religious belief is falling in line with attendance

What are religious institutions today?

• The state has taken over the roles of the church

• Influence has fallen

What are explanations for secularisation?

• Replacement of tradition with modern thinking

• Diversity

What is rationalisation according to Max Weber?

• The process by which rational ways of thinking and acting replace religious ones

• Began with the protestant reformation

What is disenchartment?

• Protestantism saw God as nothing more than a creator

• God created the world and let it run its natural course

• Religion can't explain things, so rational thinking replaces it

What is a technological worldview according to Bruce?

• Technological explanations have replaced religious ones

• Technology and science have only undermined religion

What is structural differentiation according to Parsons?

• The process of specialisation in an industrialised state

• Specialised institutions carry out the functions of the church

• Leading to the disengagement of religion as it becomes disconnected from society

• Bruce: Religion is becoming privatised

What is social and cultural diversity?

• Wilson: In pre-industrial societies, shared values were expressed through rituals that integrated individuals

• Bruce: Industrialisation undermined the consensus of religious beliefs that held communities together

• Bruce: Diversity undermines the plausibility of belief, as it depends on the existence of practising believers

What are criticisms?

Aldridge: The community doesn't have to be in a particular area. Religion can be a source of identity on a global scale

What is religious diversity according to Berger?

• Society is no longer unified under one church - decline of single 'Sacred Canopy'

• There is a plurality of world views

• Undermines religious plausibility

What is cultural defence and transition according to Bruce?

• Cultural defence: Religion provides a focal point for the defence of an identity against an external force

• Cultural transition: Religion provides support for ethnic groups, such as migrants

What are criticisms?

• Bruce has now changed his views and now argues that diversity actually stimulates participation

• Beckford: Diversity may lead to questioning of belief, but it isn't inevitable

What is a spiritual revolution?

• Traditional Christianity is being taken over by new age spirituality that emphasises personal development

• Heelas and Woodhead: New age spirituality has grown because of a subjective turn towards exploring your inner self

• Traditional churches sought duty and obedience

• Evangelical churches combine this with healing and rebirth

What is secularisation in America?

• Wilson

• Churchgoing is an expression of the American way

• American religion has become superficial

What is declining church attendance?

• 40% attendance

• Haddaway: This doesn't match with the church's statistics

• Haddaway Et Al: Carried out head counts in services and then asked other people if they attended church - attendance was exaggerated
  by 83%

What is secularisation from within?

• Religion has become psychologised

• Change has enabled it to fit into a secular society

What is religious diversity?

• Churchgoers are less dogmatic

• Bruce: Trend towards practical relativism

What are criticisms of secularisation theory?

• Religion is changing form

• Theory is one-sided

• Ignores those who believe without belonging

• Not universal

What are new forms of religion?

• Some sociologists reject the secularisation thesis

• They say some aspects of traditional religion are in decline

• But new forms of religion are now emerging

• This is the result of changes in society, such as the growth in individualism, consumerism and choice

What is obligation to consumption?

• Davie

• Religion in late modern society is now less about being obliged to practice and more about consumption and choice of how, when and if we participate

What is believing without belonging?

• Religion is becoming privatised

• People believe in their homes, so not going to church

What is vicarious religion in the spiritual health service?

• A small number of the clergy practice religion on behalf of the larger community

• 25% go to church, but 80% use it for rituals and rites

• There are multiple modernities that have different patterns of religiosity

• Science and religion will coexist

What is believing nor belonging?

• Crockett: British Attitudes Survey: Attendance and belief are both declining

• Bruce: If people don't invest the time, it means that their belief is weak

What is spiritual shopping according to Hervieu-Leger?

She argues that individuals now approach spirituality similarly to consumers, selectively picking and choosing beliefs and practices that resonate with them, leading to a more personalised, yet fragmented, spiritual experience.

What is postmodern religion?

• Globalisation has led to greatly increased movements of ideas & beliefs across national boundaries. Religious ideas have become disembedded from physical churches

• Lyon

• Traditional religion is giving way to new religions that show its continuing vigour

What is globalisation, the media and religion?

• Globalisation has given people access to once remote religions

• Deinstitutionalised/disembedded: Removed from the church or
  central place

• Religion has become a resource

• Electronic church and televangelism

What is online religion and religion online according to Helland?

• Religion online - Religious organisations use the internet to communicate with members. Replicates the top-down, hierarchical nature of the church.

• Online religion - Creates a sense of community online amongst followers of certain religions - no hierarchy, equality-based global network of individuals.

What is religious consumerism?

• Identity is created through what we consume

• We now 'Pick and Mix' the elements of different religions that we want

• Religion has moved into the sphere of consumerism

• There has been a loss of faith in the meta-narrative

What are self-religions and the new age?

• New Age spirituality rejects the idea of obligation and obedience to external authority

• It emphasises the idea of life as a journey of discovery, personal development, autonomy and connecting with one's ‘inner self'

• Individualism links all these concepts — the main focus is the self

• People engage in spiritual shopping, picking and mixing ideas found from a variety of sources

• New Age practices and beliefs are thus often called 'self-religions' or
  'self-spirituality'

What is re-enchantment of the world?

• Criticises the secularisation theory for assuming that religion is declining

• There is a period of re-enchantment with the growth of unconventional beliefs, practices and spirituality

What are criticisms?

• Bruce: Consumerist religion is a weak religion

• Evidence shows that people choose things that conform to their
  existing beliefs

What is spiritual revolution?

• Heelas & Woodhead: The Kendal Project

• Studied whether traditional religion has truly declined and if the growth of NAMs has compensated for this. They found two major groups -

  • The congregational domain: Traditional Christianity (7.9%)

  • The holistic milieu: Spirituality & the New Age (1.6%)

• New Age has grown due to a 'subjective turn' - no longer about duty, more about choice

• Traditional religion is declining

• Evangelical churches are more successful than traditional ones - Evangelicals emphasise healing and growth through being 'born again'

What are weaknesses of the new age?

• Growth of the New Age is not enough to make up for the decline of traditional religion

• New Age parents not socialising children into New Age beliefs

• Lack of serious commitment to the New Age

• New Age lacks hierarchy, consensus & structure

What are criticisms of secularisation theory?

• Stark and Bainbridge

• Secularisation theory is Eurocentric

• There was no golden age of religion

What is religious market theory?

• People are naturally religious, religion meets their needs

• People seek rewards and avoid costs

• Religious compensators: When rewards are scarce, religion provides spiritual ones

• Throughout history, there has been a cycle of religious decline; religions decline and make room for new ones

• Competition leads to improvements, churches want to appear attractive to gain members

• Monopoly = decline

What are compensators?

• Religion provides us with compensators when real rewards are lacking
  unavailable

• Cycle of renewal

• Religions decline, are revived and then renewed in a perpetual cycle

• Religious competition

• Competition leads to improvements in the quality of religious 'goods' on offer

What is America vs Europe?

• Religion thrives in America because there has never been a religious monopoly there

• In Europe, there has always been a monopoly of Christianity

• Participation increases when there is a diverse supply and declines when this is restricted

What is supply led religion according to Hadden and Shupe?

Televangelism in America shows the response to demand by preaching a 'prosperity gospel'

What is supply led religion according to Finke?

Lifting of immigration restrictions in America gave even more choices, such as Hare Krishna and Transcendental meditation

What is supply led religion according to Miller?

Evangelical megachurches in Korea and America can offer a wide range of activities to suit any member's needs, like hypermarkets

What is supply led religion according to Stark?

The Japanese free market in religion has stimulated participation

• Lots of new religions have thrived since WW2, e.g. Soka Gakkai

• This contrasts with Germany, where post-WW2 religion was closely regulated and, as a result, has declined

What are criticisms?

• Statistics show that diversity causes decline

• Bruce: They misunderstand the secularisation theory; they only claim that religion is in decline

• Norris & Inglehart: High level of religiosity in Catholic countries (e.g.
  Republic of Ireland)

What is the existential security theory according to Norris and Inglehart?

• Existential security: The feeling that survival is secure enough to take it for granted

• Poor Societies: Face life-threatening risks and have high levels of religiosity

• Rich societies: Have high standards of living, thus low levels of religiosity

• Europe is more equal than the USA - less religious

What is Europe vs America?

• Western European societies are among the most equal and secure, and also among the most secular

• The U.S. is very unequal and insecure, and also much more religious

• The U.S. is less religious than many poor societies, but more religious than Western Europe

• This supports Norris and Inglehart's theory that religiosity is the result of insecurity.

What is start welfare and religiousity?

The more countries spend on state welfare, the lower the level of religious participation

What is the evaluation?

• Vasquez: They offer good explanations for differences between countries, but don't examine people's own definitions of existential
  security

• Ignore the positive reasons people have for participation

• Qualitative research is needed as quantitative data does not look far enough into the reasons.

What are characteristics of fundamentalism?

• An authoritative sacred text

• An 'us and them' mentality

• Aggressive reaction

• Use of modern technology

• Patriarchy

• Prophecy

• Conspiracy theories

What is fundamentalism and modernity?

• Fundamentalists: Traditionalists who seek to return to the fundamentals of their faith. They believe in the literal truth of their sacred texts and believe that theirs is the only true view of the world.

• Detest modernity but use it to spread their beliefs and ideas - the internet, etc.

• Growth of fundamentalism as a product of and reaction to globalisation

• In today's world, people are faced with choice, risk and uncertainty fundamentalism is attractive because of its rigidity

What is cosmopolitanism?

Being tolerant of the views of others and open to new ideas. It requires people to justify their ideas rationally.

What are responses to postmodernity according to Castells and Bauman?

• Resistant identity: A defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist communities

• Project identity: The response of those who are forward-looking and engage with social movements

What are criticisms?

• Ignore the fundamentalist/cosmopolitan hybrid movements

• Fixated on fundamentalism and ignoring other important developments

• Lumps all types of fundamentalism together, ignoring important
  differences

What is monotheism and fundamentalism?

• Monotheistic religions: Those believing in a single almighty god and following a single text

• Polytheistic religions: Those believing in many different gods and following many religious texts

• Fundamentalism is confined to monotheistic religions

What are two fundamentalisms?

• In the West, often a reaction to change taking place within a society, especially towards diversity

• In the third world: A reaction to changes to the society from the outside, such as the imposition of Western values

What is secular fundamentalism?

• Davie: Secular forms of fundamentalism have emerged recently

• Linked to changes in the nature of modern society

  • The first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism

  • The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism

• Both forms are due to increased uncertainty in the late modern or postmodern world

What is the ‘clash of civilisations’?

• Huntington divides the world into 7 civilisations:

  • Western

  • Latin American

  • Confucian

  • Japanese

  • Hindu

  • Slavic-Orthodox (Russia and Eastern Europe)

• Religious differences are creating 'us and them' relationships

• Religious differences are harder to resolve as they are deeply rooted in culture and history

• Predicts growing conflict between the West and the rest

Why have religious differences become an important source of identity?

• Fall of communism

• Globalisation

What are criticisms?

• Casanova: Huntington ignores religious divisions within the civilisations

• Chippendale: Clash of Civilisations is a misleading Neo-conservative ideology that promotes the whole of Islam as the enemy

• Armstrong: Hostility towards the West doesn't stem from fundamentalism but Western foreign policy in the Middle East.