Key Concepts in Philosophy and Ethics

Claim

Statement of belief that is expressed propositionally.

Ad Hominem

Attacks (verbally) the person instead of the argument. Pointing out the person's character traits.

Appeal to Authority

Concluding an argument even though there is no other evidence except for a single one from an expert.

Begging the Question

Asking the audience to accept the claim even when no evidence has been given.

Equivocation

Shifting between two single words or phrases that are important in the argument.

False Dichotomy

Where the arguer sets up a situation where it seems like there are only two options.

Post Hoc, or The False Cause

Using events that seem related in time, but aren't related as cause and effect.

Philosophy

Love and wisdom. Study of morality.

Belief

Are wanted to be true.

Argument

A statement that is made in an attempt to make someone believe that something is correct.

Red Herring

An attempt to distract from the main issue.

Slippery Slope

The arguer claims that there will be a chain reaction that usually ends in some consequence.

Straw Man

You shouldn't unfairly mistreat the opponent (logically). This is when the arguer attributes a weak position to the opponent and then proceeds to attack that weak position.

Weak Analogy

Compares two or more things. A weak analogy is where the comparisons don't relate.

Cognitive Bias

Creating a connection that isn't there. They are system errors or flaws in our thinking.

Anchoring Bias

The tendency to rely on the first piece of information that one hears when making subsequent decisions about a topic.

Bandwagon Effect

The tendency to adopt a belief based on the number of other people who hold that same belief.

Fundamental Attribution Error

A bias that takes place when one judges someone based on a 'first impression.'

Placebo Effect

An unconscious bias where some people experience an effect simply because of the effectiveness.

Belief Perseverance

Holding onto a belief, even if there isn't enough support for it.

Confirmation Bias

Rejecting evidence that doesn't support their beliefs while accepting those that do.

Testimonial Belief

We believe that someone's belief is true.

Dunning-Kruger Effect

Overestimating oneself; even with limited knowledge and skills.

Values

Personal or communal standards of what is important.

Morals

Descriptions of the rightness or wrongness of actions.

Ethics

Generally accepted sets of moral principles.

Personal/Subjective Ethics

Where someone's morals are passed onto their emotions and preferences. It is up to interpretation.

Objective Ethics

Actions can be deemed right or wrong regardless of the situation or consequence. It is set in stone.

Intrinsic Goods

Things that are good in and of themselves.

Instrumental Goods

Things that are good as a way to achieve something else.

Cultural Relativism

Morality is grounded in the approval of one's society and not simply in the preferences of individual people.

Descriptive Relativism

There are different ethical views in every culture.

Moral Relativism

There is no reason to prefer one cultural ethics over another.

Objectivism

We are selfish. Our only desire is to survive by any means necessary.

Consequentialism

Judges whether something is wrong or right based on the consequences of it.

Utilitarianism

The choice to make the right decisions is based on the amount of happiness that is gained for everyone.

Deontology

Determines if something is morally right based on whether the person is doing it to be genuinely good and not the consequences.

Human (Moral) Rights

They are some of the 'natural rights' that all human beings have.

Kant's Critique

He believes morality isn't about the outcome or who it helps; you do the right thing because it is the 'right thing' to do.

Virtue Theory

Virtue ethics doesn't care as much about learning rules and consequences but instead focuses on developing good character habits.