GEOGRAPHY EXAM STUDY NOTE

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WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY?

the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments

SENSE OF PLACE

refers to how the physical layout of a space can have an emotional impact on a person

SPATIAL INTERACTION

* refers to how places interact with each other
* how things and people interact inside a space

SPATIAL PATTERN

refers to the layout of a space and how it has changed over time

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Focuses on humans, their populations, and how they interact with their environment

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

focuses on the dynamics of landscapes and the environment.

GPS

a device that determines its own location based on the signal from about four satellites

GIS

A system that creates digital maps that help provide an understanding of spatial patterns and relationships

7 LANDFORM REGIONS

* Canadian Shield
* Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands
* Hudson Bay 
* Interior Plains
* Appalachian Mountains
* Innuitian Mountains – Arctic Lowlands
* Western Cordillera

WEATHER

conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time

CLIMATE

is how the atmosphere “behaves” over relatively long periods of time

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CLIMATE

LATITUDE

* distance from the equator

OCEAN CURRENTS

* movement of water from one location to another affects the temperature of the air that passes over it

WIND AND AIR MASSES

four air masses in Canada: Polar – cold, Maritime – moist, Continental – dry, Tropical - warm

ELEVATION(ALTITUDE)

* distance from the water level going up
* higher the elevation, the lower the temperature

RELIEF

* the change of elevation and that can cause precipitation
* cooling leads to condensation on the windward side leaving the leeward side of the mountain is left dry

NEAR WATER

* climates around bodies of water are moderate
* level of precipitation is relatively high
* those away from the water are likely to have extreme changes in climate

CLIMATE REGIONS

* Arctic
* taiga
* cordillera
* pacific maritime
* boreal
* prairie
* southeastern
* Atlantic maritime

VEGETATION REGIONS

* Tundra
* West Coast Forest
* Cordilleran Vegetation
* Boreal and Taiga Forest
* Grassland
* Mixed Forest
* Deciduous Forest

LAYERS OF EARTH

THE CRUST

* made up of solid rock
* varies in thickness

THE MANTLE

is a thick layer of molten rock (called magma)

THE CORE

made up of an outer liquid layer and a solid center.

ALFRED WEGENER:

* 300 million years ago all earth’s land masses were in constant motion and collided to form one supercontinent called PANGAEA (“all land”)


* About 200 million years ago Pangaea started to break up
* Pieces drifted in different directions to their present positions.

TYPES OF INDUSTRIES

PRIMARY INDUSTRY

* referred to as **extraction**
* industries that extract or produce raw materials
* mining, forestry, fishing, agriculture

SECONDARY INDUSTRY

* referred to as manufacturing
* changes raw materials into usable products through processing and manufacturing
* manufacturing, engineering, chemical, clothing, brewing industries

TERTIARY INDUSTRY

* referred to as service industries
* provide essential services and support to allow other levels of industry to function
* finance, utilities, education, retail, housing, medical etc.

QUATERNARY INDUSTRY

* referred to as information industries
* involves advanced technology and the transfer of information
* app creations, software development, experimentations for curing diseases, inquiry-based research

QUINARY

* responsible for services provided by the highest levels of organization in society
* includes services such as government, military, education, and healthcare decision-making processes

DEPENDENCY THEORY

the idea that resources flow from poor and underdeveloped countries to wealthy countries, enriching the latter at the expense of the former

ROSTOW’S TRADE THEORY

Traditional society

rural, no technology, local trade (no countries in this stage)

Pre-conditions to take off

the beginning of urbanization, transportation systems develop, mechanized farming. (ex. Afghanistan)

Take off

urbanization starting all over the country, international trade has begun (ex Philippines)

Drive to maturity

specialization of industry, investment in social infrastructure, Improved technology. (ex. Brazil, Russia, china)

High mass consumption

advanced technology and communication, skilled workforce. (example Canada)

WALLERSTEIN’S WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY

resources from the periphery(underdeveloped countries) and semi-periphery(developing countries) are sent to the core(developed countries) where these resources are converted into goods and sent back into the periphery and semi-periphery

TARIFFS

* Tariffs are taxes on items leaving or entering a country
* tariffs raise revenue, protect domestic industries, or exert political leverage over another country.
* Tariffs often result in unwanted side effects, such as higher consumer prices

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE

The ability of an individual country to specialize in a good or service at a lower cost than trade with other countries who specializes in different good or service at a low cost so both countries can receive goods at a lower cost, overall benefiting them both

DEMOGRAPHY

is the study of populations, population density, and historical trends in population growth

BIRTH RATE

\# of births /population x 1000

DEATH RATE

\# of deaths /population x 1000

EMIGRATION

\# of emigrations/population x 1000

IMMIGRATION

\# immigrations/population x 1000

NATURAL INCREASE

Birth rate − death rate \= rate of natural increase

NET MIGRATION RATE

(Immigration -Emigration ) / Total Population x 1000

POPULATION GROWTH

Natural Increase + Net Migration

POPULATION GROWTH RATE

Population Growth/1000 x 100%

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL

Used to help describe the change from a high birth and death rate to a low birth and death rate

STAGE 1 (PRE-TRANSITION):

birth and death rate are high (some growth)

STAGE 2 (EARLY TRANSITION):

* birth rate is high 
* death rate drops dramatically 
* results in population explosion

STAGE 3 (LATE TRANSITION): 

* birth rate drops quickly
* death rate continues to decline

STAGE 4 (POST-TRANSITION): 

* birth rate stabilizes
* death rate slightly increases as population ages
* fewer children more senior

DECLINING POPULATION

Canada’s population is slowly decreasing due to its large senior population of baby boomers, therefore, increasing death rates

DEPENDENCY LOAD

The part of the population that relies on the working population for support(children 0-15, seniors 65+) 

POPULATION PYRAMIDS

A series of stages that countries are assumed to go through the same pattern

STAGE 1 (RAPID)

* High child dependency
* Low senior population

STAGE 2 (EXPANDING):

* Growing working age group 
* Low senior population

STAGE 3 (STABILIZING):

* Growing senior population
* More even distribution

STAGE 4 (STABLE/DECLINING/CONTRACTING): 

* Low child dependency
* High working population

PUSH FACTORS

Factors that cause people to leave the country in which they live

PULL FACTORS

Factors that draw immigrants to a different country

INTERVENING OBSTACLES

Forces that discourage or stop someone from following through on their decision to immigrate.

IMMIGRATION

Migrating into a place (into a place)

EMIGRATION

migrating away from a place (exiting a place)

REFUGEES

a person who has been **forced** to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster

CANADA’S POPULATION HISTORICALLY

* The First Nations and Inuit of Canada are the original inhabitants
* Immigrants from Europe came and dominated the land causing a descendant of immigrants in Canada

CANADA’S POPULATION PRESENT

* Aging Population
* High Life Expectancy
* Increasing Death Rate
* Decreasing Birth Rate

CANADA’S POPULATION FUTURE

* More immigrants
* High senior population
* Low children population

CANADA’S IMMIGRATION PATTERNS

1840s

Irish settlers - left due to the devastating potato crop failure causing starvation.

1905-1914

Eastern Europe - Canadian government offered free land and other incentives to immigrants

1947-1960

Italians - trying to flee the devastation caused by WWII

1956

Hungarians - failed revolt against the Soviet Union

1980-1997

Hong Kong Chinese - searching for political stability

1980-2003

Afghanistans - seeking safety from conflicts in their country.

2015

Syria- 73,000 refugees from due to war.

2022

Ukaine - trying to flee the invading of Russia

IMMIGRATION PROS

* Immigrants help replace the previous working population, the baby boomers, 
* Immigrants help provide for the dependency load 
* Immigrants help sustain the economy
* Bring education and knowledge from other countries which can benefit Canada

IMMIGRATION CONS

* Some people take advantage of the immigration system by claiming refugee status for immediate entry into the country
* Some immigrants may not be qualified to assist in the economy (senior citizens or children)
* Overcrowding, therefore, there is a demand for more necessities such as housing, hospitals, etc

URBAN LAND USES

1. Residential (housing developments/ apartments)
2. Transportation (infrastructure= roads, railroads)
3. Institutional and public buildings (schools, government buildings, community centers)
4. Open Space and recreational (parks, forests, lakes)
5. Industrial (factories, plants)
6. Commercial (grocery stores, malls, shops, etc)

URBAN SPRAWL

the spreading of urban structures into areas surrounding a city in order to provide more for a community

SUSTAINABILITY

* when a place can be maintained at a certain level for as long as is needed.

Walkability

is the accessibility to necessary everyday stores and places

BID-RENT FUNCTION

describes the price range that a household (or firm) would be willing to pay at various locations in order to achieve a given level of satisfaction

SUBURBS

Residential areas outside of main urban areas that are connected to the city by main roads.

EXURBS

Residential areas outside main urban areas that are not connected to the city by main roads (e.g. farm/open space).