anatomy final

what are the components of the ANS

sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous system (acts independently of CNS)

function of the ANS

involuntary control of the cardiac muscle, smooth msucle, and glands

maintains homeostasis and mediates emotional responses

what are the pathways for somatic pathway

sensory/afferent and motor/efferent

what are the sensory/afferent pathways for

special senses and temperature

what are the 2 further divisions of the motor/efferent pathway

somatic (skeletal) and autonomic (cardiac and smooth, glands)

where are cell bodies for sensory neurons

outside the spinal cord aka dorsal root ganglia.

where are the cell bodies for motor neurons

inside the spinal cord (afferent/efferent)

what are ganglia

relay stations, connecting different parts of the brain together

SYMPATHETIC preganglionic neurons are…

short and myelinated

SYMPATHETIC length of postganglionic neurons

length depends on destination and there’s slower conduction because unmyelinated and covered by schwann cells (for support NOT myelination)

homeostasis is the balance between the ___ and ___ divisions

sympathetic and parasympathetic

whats the other name for the sympathetic division of ANS and where is it

thoracolumbar system

on both sides of the lateral horn of spinal cord

how does sympathetic NS prepare the body for action

stimulates breakdown of glycogen, increases heart rate and sweating, inhibits the digestive system, relaxes urinary bladder

What is responsible for the branched outflow of preganglionic sympathetic nerves, which connects spinal nerves to the sympathetic trunk

white rami communicantes

what are the white rami communicantes connected to

ganglionic neurons

what does the axon of a ganglionic neuron exit

gray rami communicantes

function of gray rami communicantes

unmyelinated postganglionic sympathetic fibers that react to synapse with target effectors

what is another name for the parasympathetic division of ANS

craniosacral system

where are the preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic system located

brainstem and sacral spinal cord

what are the activites for when the body is at rest

salivation, digestion, sexual arousal, urination and defecation.

length of parasympathetic preganglionic neurons and where do they synapse?

long, terminal ganglia

length of parasympathetic postganglionic neurons

short

what is autonomic tone

balance between SNS and PSNS activity that regulates various physiological functions.

what is sympathetic vasomotor tone

the continuous level of sympathetic activity that maintains vascular tone and blood pressure.

• increase in signal > vasoconstriction

• decrease in signal > vasodilation

what is parasympathetic tone

maintains smooth muscle tone in intestines and also resting HR

which cranial nerves arise from the brainstem

oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus

function of hypothalamus

regulate the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic input to the organs of the body

what are the neurotransmitters of the autonomic system

acetylcholine (cholinergic synapses), norepinephrine (adrenergic synapses)

hormone vs neurotransmitter

hormone - in blood

neurotransmitter - synaptic cleft

what is the autonomic varicosity

swelling along the the length of a fiber that release neurotransmitters

ex. smooth muscle cell

what are the 2 messengers in the ANS

cholinergic and adrenergic synapse

somatic vs visceral reflex

somatic - skeletal

visceral - smooth muscle, glands

where is somatic reflex connected to

direct connection with the ventral horn

what are the cranial nerves of the parasympathetic system

oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus

what is the cranial component

projects from eye to the intestines

what is the sacral component

picks up majority of large intestines and pelvic organs or urinary and pelvic systems

what is the thoracolumbar component

through various sympathetic ganglia, reaches all organs

what is an endogenous chemical

a chemical the body produces to interact with receptors

what is an exogenous chemical

may be of natural origin or made in a pharm lab, a chemical introduced to the system outside

what do muscarinic receptors find

muscarine and Ach

what do alpha and beta adrenergic receptors bind

norepinephrine

what are long reflexes

integration in the spinal cord or brain

what are short reflexes

stimulation of postganglionic fiber by sensory neuron

name of drug that enhances adrenergic function and example

sympathomimetic aka agonist

ex. mydriasis to dilate the pupil during the eye exam

what is the name of the drug that interrupts adrenergic function and ex

antagonist or sympatholytic

ex. beta blockers that bind to beta-adrenergic receptors and inhibit their function

name of drug that enhances cholinergic effects

parasympathomimetic

name of the drug that interrupts cholinergic effects

anticholinergic

what are the major sections of the neurological exam

mental status, cranial nerve, sensory, motor, coordination

what is the mental status exam

tests higher cognitive function, memory, orientation, and language

what is the purpose of the cranial nerve exam

tests for the function of the 12 cranial nerves and structures associated with them

what is a stroke

loss of blood flow to a part of the brain

aka cardiovascular accident

what is an ischemic stroke

when there is a blockage or reduction in blood supply to the brain

due to embolus (fat deposit or blood clot, thickening of the BV or hypovolemia/low blood volume)

what is a hemorrhagic stroke

occurs when blood vessel in the brain leaks or ruptures

bleeding into the brain bc of damaged blood vessel causing pressure

what is an edema

fluid buildup from dmg to the vasculature that can break the blood brain barrier

swelling caused by the buildup of fluid in the body’s tissues

what is aphasia

loss of language and speech features due to dmg to broca’s and wernicke’s or the white matter connection between them

what are the cranial nerves

connect the head and neck directly to the brain

cranial nerve I

olfactory, responsible for smell

cranial nerve ll

optic, responsible for seeing

cranial nerve III

oculomotor - responsible for eye and eyelid mvmt, constriction of pupil

cranial nerve IV

trochlear, responsible for medial eye movement

cranial nerve V

trigeminal, responsible for motor (chewing) and sensory (facial, temperature and touch)

cranial nerve VI

abducens, responsible for lateral eye movement

cranial nerve VII

facial, responsible for facial expressions, secretion of saliva and tears, taste

cranial nerve VIII

auditory, responsible for hearing/balance aka vestibulocochlear

cranial nerve IX

glossopharyngeal, responsible for saliva secretion, tongue sensation, taste, and outer ear

cranial nerve X

vagus, responsible for autonomic functions, heart rate, digestion, and sensory information from organs

cranial nerve XI

spinal accessory - motor for head and neck

cranial nerve XII

hypoglossal, responsible for tongue movements and speech

what are the effects of pituitary tumor and why does it occur

double vision or complete loss of peripheral vision

occurs because the tumor can press against the optic fiber

what CN’s control gaze control

oculomotor (3), trochlear (IV), and abducens (VI)

what does trochlear nerve control

superior oblique

what does abducens nerve control

inferior rectus

how to test motor nerves of neck

ask patient to shrug against resistance

lateral flexion of neck towards the shoulder

what muscles are controlled by the accessory nerve

trapezius and sternocleidomastoid

what are dermatomes

areas of the body that rely on specific nerve connections on your spine

what is somatosensation

body’s ability to perceive tactile mvmt, proprioception, sense of position and movement, somatosensory stimuli

lesions ABOVE the decussation (ex. the brain) will cause symptoms on the ___ of the body

contralateral (opposite side)

lesions BELOW the decussation (typically the spinal cord) will cause symptoms on the ___ of the body

ipsilateral (Same side)

purpose of the coordination and gait exams

check for proprioceptive feedback (a type of exam)

what types of things do they check for for the coordination and gait exams

tremor, rebound responses, check for posture, walking and balance

what is the field sobriety test, what does it consist of

used to assess whether drivers are under the influence

because the cerebellum is very sensitive to ethanol

a variation of the coordination exam

• consists of walking in a straight line

• extending arms out wide, touch fingertip to nose with eyes closed

function of the endocrine system

sends chemicals/hormones to the body

the hormones secreted by the endocrine organs into extracellular fluid and travel into the bloodstream

functions of hormones

regulation of homeostasis

growth and reproduction

secondary sexual characteristics

response to outside stimuli

what are endocrine glands

ductless glands that secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream

ex. pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal gland

what are endocrine organs

organs that contain endocrine cells, has other primary functions]

ex. hypothalamus, thymus, heart, kidneys, stomach, etc

pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and hormones

what is autocrine secretion

when chemical acts back on the same cell that secreted it

what is paracrine secretion

when chemical acts on nearby cells but NOT through bloodstream

what are the different types of hormones

amino acid derivatives, peptides or small proteins, lipid derivatives

examples of amino acid derivatives (hormones)

water-soluble: epinephrine, norepinephrine

fat-soluble: thyroxine

examples of peptide or small protein (hormone)

insulin, human growth hormone

examples of lipid derivatives (hormones)

estrogen, testosterone

water-soluble hormones have a — half life, where are they from

short

pancreas, pineal gland, pituitary,

lipid-soluble hormones have a — half life, where are they from

longer

adrenal cortex, gonads, thyroid

binding of water-soluble hormones

hormone arrives > G protein activated > adenylyl cyclase is activated > ATP → cAMP > protein kinase is activated > protein gets activated bc of phosphorylation

binding of lipid-soluble hormones

hormone enters bc lipid-soluble > binds to an intracellular receptor to form a hormone-rceptor complex > go to nucleus and affects DNA > make new proteins

what are the 2 hormones in posterior pituitary gland

oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

how many different hormones does the anterior pituitary gland produce

7

how does the anterior pituitary gland release hormones

indirect control - hypothalamus tells AP what to do/make hormones

• hypothalamus releases regulatory hormones into BV

• these hormones travel to anterior lobe of pituitary

  • prod its own hormones > controls other endocrine organs

how does the posterior pituitary gland release hormones

direct neural control - hypothalamus makes and delivers hormones itself

• makes ADH and oxytocin

• these hormones travel down axons into the posteiror pituitary where they’re stored and released

stimulation pathway of endocrine system

hypothalamus secretes release hormone

> causes AP to make hormone 1

> hormone 1 cuases endocrine organ to secrete hormone 2

> hormone 2 causes a target organ response