UPenn Psych 001 Midterm 1

intuition

instinctive heartfelt awareness that provides the most reliable guide

hindsight bias

I knew it all along phenomenon; the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

common sense

describe what has happened not what will happen

overconfidence

tend to think we know more than we do

3 components that lead to critical thinking

curiosity, skepticism, humility

critical thinking

examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Skepticism

sift reality from fantasy

Humility

awareness of own vulnerability for error

Scientific Method

evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

theory

well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

carefully worded statement of the exact procedures so others can replicate

descriptive method

describes behavior from outside observation (case study,, naturalistic observation, the survey)

correlational method

associate different factors

case study

examines one individual in depth in hopes of revealing things true of us all

naturalistic observation

observing a recorded behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control

survey

self-reported attitudes/behaviors in random sample of a group

wording effects

subtle changes in order of wording questions can have major effects

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which 2 factors vary together, correlation does not prove causation

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1), how one factor will predict the other

scatterplots

graphed cluster of dots, represent 2 variables, the slope is the direction of the relationship between the variables, the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the relationship

illusory correlation

recalling confirming instances more than disconfirming instances

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

experiment

enable researchers to isolate effects of one or more factors, manipulating factor of interest, holding constant other factors

experimental group

people receiving the treatment

control group

not receiving experimental treatment
receives placebo, serves as comparison for evaluating the treatment

random assignment

randomly assigning people to the 2 groups, minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

double-blind procedure

both the participants and the staff are blind to whether the participant recieves treatment or placebo

placebo effect

thinking you are getting the treatment causes a change in behavior

independent variable

factor that is manipulated

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect --> random assignment controls for possible confounding variables

dependent variable

the outcome that is measured

Status Variable

variable that defines a class, category, or type
e.g.: race, marital status, SES, maternal age, education level, employment status (something that is already known)

Quazi Experiment

a 2x2 experiment

p-value

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance if below 0.05).

p-hacking

find some publishable result that reaches a 0.05 p-value

Correlation does not equal causation

1. directionality (is x causing y or y causing x)
2. Third variable: A type of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others
3. correlations do permit predictions

Pherenology

the practice of examining bumps on a person's skull to determine that person's intellect and character traits

neurons

a nerve cell, the basic building blocks of the NS

cell body/soma

contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life

dendtrites

bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct messages towards the cell body

axon

lengthy fiber that passes messages through terminal end to other neurons

myelin sheath

fatty tissue that insulates axons and speeds up impluses

glial cells

support, norish, protect neurons, role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

a neural impulse; a breif electrical charge that travels down an axon

resting potential

positive charged Na+ ions high concentration outside the cell and K+ in cytosol with more negative charge

selectively permeable

a property of cell membranes that allows some substances to pass through, while others cannot

depolarization

temporary inflow of positive ions

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

2 types of signals

excitatory and inhibitory

all-or-none response

a neuron either fires or it doesn't, stronger stimulus means higher frequency

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron, the gap called synaptic cleft

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Acetylcholine

role in learning and memory, the messenger at every junction between motor neurons and skeletal muscles

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

decrease neurotransmitter action by blocking production or release

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Three types of neurons

sensory: afferent
motor: efferent
interneurons: process info between sensory and motor neurons

Within PNS

autonomic: controls glands and muscles of internal organs
somatic: enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles

Within autonomic

sympathetic (arousing): uses energy
parasympathetic (calming): conserves energy

Within somatic

sensory (input)
motor (output)

neural networks

nearby neurons with which can have short fast connections, neurons that fire together wire together

spinal cord

two-way info highway connects PNS and the brain

reflexes

autonomic response to stimuli

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that travel through bloodstream and affect other tissues

adrenal gland

pair that sit atop kidneys and secret hormones that arouse in times of stress (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

pituitary gland

most influential endocrine gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

2 structure of the brainstem

medulla: the base of brainstem; controls for heartbeat and breathing
pons: above the medulla; control sleep and coordinate movements

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla, all the senses expect smell

recticular formation

lies between the ears, neuron network extending from spinal cord through the thalamus, filtering incoming stimuli, controls arousal

cerebellum

rear of the brainstem, 2 wrinkled halves (little brain), enable nonverbal learning and skill memory, injured cerebellum= trouble walking, keeping balance, shaking hands

lymbic system

between the oldest and newest area of the brain

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
1. lesion in amygdala display reduced arousal to fear and anger-arousing stimuli

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Structures of the Cortex

wrinkles in the brain increase surface area, hemispheres filled with axons connecting regions
4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements, simulating left or right hemispheres causes movement in the opposite side of the body, electrodes in motor cortex results in cognitive neural prosthetics for paraalysis

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations, the more sensitive the body region the larger cortex area devoted

visual cortex

occipital lobe

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking, cannot be mapped, example pre-frontal cortex

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience, blind and deaf makes their unused brain areas avaliable for other uses

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

splitting the brain

corpus callosum: the large band of neural fibers connecting the 2 brain hemispheres and carry messages between them
split brains: separation of the hemispheres

right and left differences

right= perceptual tasks, making inferences
left= speaks, calculates

Roger Sperry

the brain creates and control the emergent mind, which then influences the brain

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior, arise from interplay of nature and nurture