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Main Goals of Reformers
cleaning up politics
limiting the power of big business
reducing poverty
promoting social justice
Progressive Era
The name historians gave the period of unrest in the 1880s and 90s. Labor unions and farm groups rose to prominence, demanding change from the industrial order. Progressive middle class and elite Americans joined this call, although less extremely on the most part. Was made up of diverse groups of reformers who often contradicted each other in pursuit of different goals, wearing down institutions and heralding change.
Post-Reconstruction Electoral Politics
A new period of political conflict, with neither party holding a strict national majority. Senate and House flipped three and five times respectively from 1880 to 1894 as northerners grew distant from republicans and southern democrats gained a foothold on capitol hill. Population growth changed the size of the House, +100 seats. Additionally, seven new states joined the union (Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah)
Political War References
On both sides of politics, Civil War loyalties were touted and paraded about to win over voters, despite critics accusing them of “waving the bloody shirt.” Despite this, war issues were still at the forefront of many’s lives including those who had lost family or those fighting for former slaves’ right to vote. Voters also had strong economic views.
Presidential Challenges
Many presidents won by a narrow margin or not at all in the popular vote and thus had little room to operate with one or both houses of congress against them. Both sides were rife with voting fraud in order to sniff out the thinnest margin of victory in key states.
Gilded Age
A term borrowed from an 1873 Mark Twain novel to describe America. Pretty on the outside, decaying on the inside morally. About stagnant politics but also fits economy with these massive barons at the expense of the poor. Political leaders disagreed bitterly on what action to take, but even in the early 1880s Congress took steps towards reform, this age being the very start of the Progressive Era.
James Garfield
Is shot 4 months into office, dies months later. Most now believe the shooter (Charles Guiteau) was mentally ill. Reformers blamed his anger at the “spoils system,” granting government jobs to loyalists. Chester Arthur assumes presidency
Pendleton Act
Passed after Garfield’s death, established a nonpartisan Civil Service Commission to fill federal jobs. Really did a blow to the spoils system and laid groundwork for public employment. Extended to most positions by 1910s, cities and states followed suit.
Civil Service Laws
Worked against patronage but also favored middle class white applicants who tested well, even for jobs like firemen. Was better than just nepotism workers though, put skilled people in appropriate jobs.
Republican Dissent
Former republicans grew less thrilled with reconstruction, many opposed Grant in 1872 and didn’t like how scandalous their candidates were. Liberal Republicans were criticized but helped elect Democrat Grover Cleveland. Had unpopular policies with the Negro vote, disliked economic and policy, lost congress and polls.
Grover Cleveland
Democrat, defeated Republican James Blaine, largely agreed with Liberal Republicans, vetoing bills that would give pension to veterans. In 1887 though he went along with farm labor advocates, signing the interstate commerce act
Municipal and State Governments
Showing how larger government could aid in industrial issues. Bureau of labor statistics established in 1870s-80s. Commisions made to oversee industries like dairy and banking. Despite being relatively underfunded and lacking legal power, were powerful advocates for workplace safety standards.
Republican Activism
Republicans gained control of congress and the white house in 1888, after 10 years of division. Pursued an agenda to ambitiously modernize the nation. Gave pensions to veterans regulated interstate corporations and passed the Sherman Antitrust Act, the first of attempts to regulate trusts and monopolies. Also Benny Harrison pursued better voting rights in the south despite risk.
Lodge Bill
Drafted in Congress in 1890, which allowed for federal investigation of elections if enough people protested, giving them the power to seat a winner. Outraged democrats who feared “negro supremacy” but passed in the house. The Senate resisted due to northern liberals who thought it was too much democracy (wanted “best man” to lead) while machine bosses feared federal interference. West also against, so bill lost by one vote.
Farmers Alliance Growing Influence
Democrats faced pressure from rural voters who subscribed to the beliefs of the Farmers Alliance, some took up the demands and others ignored, a bad choice on their part.
People’s Party
Formed in a heavily Republican Kansas which did not like Farmer’s Alliance, joined with Knights of Labor to make the party. Shocked by getting 4/5 of seats in lower house of Kansas and most of the congress seats. Envigorated labor and farmers nationwide. Became known as populists. Some extremists even fought land grabbing by cutting fences and intimidated rail workers. Judged by northeastern presses, against Republicans and Democrats, had farmers votes and mixed success with other demographics, winning some congressional seats.
Omaha Platform
Platform of the People’s party, called for public ownership of railroads and telegraphs, protecting land from monopoly and foreign owners, income tax on the rich, looser money laws to aid borrowers.
Populist Leaders
Represented mostly ordinary farmers, won interesting names. James H. Davis gave a great speech and became known as “Cyclone” Mary E. Lease, critic of economic policies for the rich was “Yellin’ Mary Ellen” Jerry Simpson “Sockless Jerry”
Depression of 1893
Republicans blamed newly re-elected Grover Cleveland, which won over non-southern voters. European investors were pulling money due to hard times, railroads and other companies went bankrupt, investors panicked, stock market crashed. Banks and businesses failed.
Red Scare Predecessor
Fearing violence due to depression and labor movements, first “Red Scare” launched to move americans against communism
Jacob Coxey
Proposed unemployed be given jobs fixing infrastructure, marched peacefully to Washington with his “army” Was viewed as a dangerous extremist, others started marching in the west, inspired by Coxey. Populists supported, others drove off. Coxey was addressed for tresspassing and his march failed
Cleveland’s Shortcomings
Was out of touch with the needs of his rural population, refused to loosen money supply by including silver in federal coinage, clinging to gold standard. With 1894 midterms, democrats tried to distance themselves, realizing he had lost popularity. Still many turned Republican, ousting populists in the west.
Populists in the South
Proposed new measures to help wage earning farmers, attracted both white and black people which Democrats did not like, saying populists wanted “negro rule” which won back some voters. Eventually democrats resorted to fraud and violence to put down populists.
Voter Supression in South
Widely known about widely practiced in favor of Democrats to the point they bragged about it. Grandfather clauses deemed unconstitutional, but poll taxes, literacy tests, understanding tests all worked to supress the black vote. Racial climate fixed itself
Convict Lease System
Took hold in reconstruction, expanded after the fact. Blacks received harsh sentences for non-crimes (vagrancy). Provided state revenue, overwhelmingly black prisoners. Reformers, Unions, populists all spoke out against the sytem, reforms only made it so convicts worked in chain gangs for the state
Cleveland Divorces Democrats
Democrats and Cleveland went in different directions, Democrats supported some agrarian policies. Cleveland on the otherhand made a deal with JP Morgan to re-establish gold standard and JP get paid with bonds. Democrats were outraged and nominated a Nebraskan congressman anti-gold standard
Williams Jennings Bryan
1896 Democrat Candidate, defended farmers and didn’t like the gold standard. Demonstrated shift of Democrats from a limited government approach as he pushed income taxes for revenue. Was endorsed by Populists with their waning power, which signed their death.
William McKinley
The candidate for horrified Republicans in 1896, tariff advocate who partnered with Marcus Hannah, his campaign manager who got him corporate backing and funds. Moved away from moral issues and reached out to immigrants. Was not a reformer, despite the fact problems with industrialization and corporate power were becoming more apparent. Was shot by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist who raised immigrant feared
Nationwide Voter Exclusion
Following the trend in the south, in the 1890s more and more states sought to exclude “unfit voters". both parties sought to make it harder to get on the ballot to avoid populist style threats. Voter turnout went down, favoring wealthy and natives. Paradoxically this increased the power of voters, allowing states to determine nominees and directly elect congresspeople with the 17th amendment.
Supreme Court Hostility
Struck down proposed reforms, in 1895 it said no to an income tax on the wealthy, a nineteen year goal for reformers. shot down Lochner vs. New York saying NY couldn’t limit bakers work to 10 hours. Courts used the 14th amendment to protect contract rights.
Struggles of Labor Organizations
Federal Courts kept invalidating laws meant to protect workers and worker’s organizations. Disagreed with the rulings of the courts, saying that they were overstepping their bounds and unfairly treating employers and employees as equal parties
Theodore Roosevelt
Sworn in after McKinley kicked the bucket. Former Republican turned rancher, was experienced in the problems of America. Was chosen to be VP to neutralize his growing power, but became Prez instead, calling for vigorous reform
Generally supported corporations but sometimes stood up for labor, telling them to negotiate or nationalize. Pushed for different labor acts (sherman, interstate commerce) including elkins (prohibits railroads favoring certain customers), also increasing investigation abilities for antitrust people. Allowed for Northern Securities to be dissolved in landmark supreme court case.
Square Deal
Roosevelt’s 1904 Campaign - Corporate regulation, Enviromental Protections, Consumer Protections. Stepped up attacks on trusts after being re-elected, hoped to target those who abused wealth and power. Passed Hepburn Act to strengthen ICC
Shifting Federal Powers
Previously found haven in certain safe states, not facing much legal pressure, but with the Supreme Court’s ruling on Northern Securities, the Court realized their power and authority to break up the most blatant monopolies, starting with Standard Oil with the Taft administration.
Roosevelt’s Enviromental Action
He was really outdoorsy, inspiring teddy bears, speaking highly of outdoor experiences. Created 3 national parks, including one protecting native american archaeology sites. Created wildlife refuges with Executive Orders. Had some pro-business hints though, increased federal forest reserves for logging potential. Sold public land in Newlands Reclamation Act, ironically fulfilling a Coxey request.
William Howard Taft
Republican’s 1908 nominee after Roosevelt stepped down, beat jennings who painted Republicans as “plutocrats" and was more prolabor. However after he won, the republicans divided under reform pressure, he lost the progressive support.
Rising Democracy
As Grassroots movements grew, so did the demand for “more democracy” to fix issues. Disagreed on the means between different progressive groups. States served as test runs for this “more democracy” Wisconsin was a big example of it, more experts in policy, more government intervention, restrict lobbying, allow citizens to remove officers and vote directly on laws
Labor w/ Women and Children
Common attitude on poverty started to shift from “they deserve it” as people shone more light on horrific conditions, especially in child labor, with a comittee investigating, leading to a conference to discuss child welfare. Muller vs. Oregon declared victory for women, limiting work to 10 hours in a surprise ruling. Did not include men but encouraged female reformers. Still not tons of federal support
New Workers Aid
from 1910 - 1917 industrial states enacted insurance laws protecting families who breadwinners died in tragic workplace accidents. Some provided similar things with “mother’s pensions” which were limited but important groundwork
Industrial Workers of the World
Formed in response to more progressive labor attitudes not satisfied with AFL. Supported Marxist class struggles. Got about 100k members by 1916
Labor Violence
Bombing LA Times in 1910 for being antiunion got national attention + IWW strikes + Shirtwaist fires draw public eye to worker’s needs
Modern Civil Rights
Had to recover from Plessy vs. Ferguson in 1896 which gave legal basis for segregation, activists fought against compromise as they lost ground. Met at Niagra falls and agreed to fight for full voting rights, no segregation, equal justice, equal opportunity in careers etc
NAACP
Race riots in Springfield appalled activists grouped together, forming the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Most who had been at Niagra joined, and it spread with churches and women’s clubs. Worked with national urban league a union of agencies that assisted black migrants in the North
Election of 1912
Roosevelt came back from his safari to see Taft’s struggles and stepped back into the political sphere adopting a more reform oriented platform, controlling private property, no child labor, women’s suffrage, attacking the legal system’s blocking of reform. Republicans were scared and chose taft, so he became progressive party nominee. Eugene V. Debs also ran as a socialist. Woodrow Wilson became Democratic nominee after success as a reforming NJ governor. Less ambitiously progressive than Roosevelt. No parties were very open or appealing to African Americans, Du Bois endorsed Wilson, who won due to Republicans being split between Taft and Roosevelt
Eugene V. Debs
Founder of the American Railroad Union for both skilled and unskilled workers. Participated in 1894 Pullman Strike, served time in prison with other leaders, radicalizing him, became socialist, pushing the party.
Woodrow Wilson
Won in 1912, faced pressure for reform, supported labor for the most part but still did some whit supremacy, pursuing primarily economic reforms
Wilson’s economic reforms
Democrats thought workers needed strong government. Established a progressive income tax as well as an inheritance tax. Reorganized banking with Federal Reserve act to make sure things would remain stable, giving them the power to print money and set interest rates.
Also turned on trusts with Brandeis, limiting their power with Clayton Antitrust which fixed Sherman to not attack unions and established FTC. Buddied with labor to protect rail and sea workers.
U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations
Investigated conditions of labor and explained why workers were resentful, proposed laws to curb hostiltiy between employers and employees
