[STS] S2: Intellectual Revolutions and Society

Revolution

was the paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having Earth stationary at the center of the universe, to the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish: German, was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer, who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than Earth at the center of the universe

The geocentric model was accepted for centuries because it matched religious beliefs, was supported by respected philosophers, seemed to fit visible observations, lacked opposing evidence due to limited technology, and was upheld by tradition and authority.

What were the reasons the geocentric is accepted in centuries?

• Financial Benefits (sustainable growth and job creation)

• Economic Development

• European Research Development

Benefits of the Heliocentric Model (3)

Copernicus faced challenges such as strong opposition from the Church, rejection by scholars loyal to the geocentric model, fear of being accused of going against Church teachings, and lack of observational proof due to limited scientific instruments at the time.

What challenges did Copernicus face when presenting his ideas?

Copernican Revolution

scientific shift that changed the view of Earth from being the center of the universe to one of the planets orbiting the Sun, initiated by Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century.

Heliocentric System

A model of the solar system where the Sun is at the center, and all planets, including Earth, orbit around it.

Heliocentric Model of the Universe

The initiator of the scientific revolution; the start of a change in a way the world was viewed.

(Sun is stationary or at rest)

Geocentric

A model of the universe that places Earth at the center, with the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets revolving around it. (By Claudius Ptolemy)

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

The book published by Copernicus in 1543, which introduced his heliocentric theory; translated as On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.

1543

The year Copernicus published his revolutionary work and the year of his death.

1514

The year Copernicus distributed his handwritten book proposing the Sun near the center of the universe to his friends.

Scientific Impact of Copernicus

His theory changed how people understood and studied the universe through physics and astronomy.

Earth’s Movement

According to Copernicus, Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun.

Giordano Bruno

An Italian scientist executed for supporting the Copernican heliocentric view and other controversial ideas.

Ptolemaic System

An Earth-centered model of the universe where celestial bodies move in circular paths (epicycles) attached to invisible spheres.

Epicycle

small circular path followed by a planet, believed in Ptolemaic theory to be part of a larger circular orbit (deferent) around the Earth.

Paul III

The Pope to whom Copernicus dedicated his book; known for his interest in astrology.

Universal Physical Laws

The Copernican Revolution emphasized that the universe operates according to consistent physical laws everywhere and at all times.

Sphericity of Earth

concept known since at least the 4th century BC, but Earth's rotation and orbit around the Sun became widely accepted only after the Copernican Revolution.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian scientist (1564–1642) who further advanced the heliocentric theory and supported Copernicus' ideas.

Darwinian Revolution

A major scientific and cultural shift initiated by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, challenging the idea of species as immutable and reshaping biology, religion, and society.

Charles Darwin

The English naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection and published On the Origin of Speciesin 1859.

1859

The year Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, marking a turning point in science and religion.

Theory of Evolution

Darwin’s idea that new species arise through gradual changes over time, not divine creation, primarily driven by natural selection.

• Biological Science

• Psychology

• Literature, Technology, Music, Religion

• Ecological Niche Modeling

What are the ideas that touched a good aspect of society because of Charles Darwin’s theories? (4)

Darwin is considered one of the most influential scientists in history because his theory of evolution by natural selection changed how we understand life’s development, challenged traditional beliefs, and laid the foundation for modern biology.

Why is Darwin considered one of the most influential scientist in history?

• On the Origin of Species (1859)

• The Descent of Man (1871)

Two books by Charles Darwin

• Theory of Natural Selection

• Theory of Evolution

The two theories from Charles Darwin

Natural Selection

A mechanism of evolution where individuals with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Variation

Differences in physical characteristics within a species; essential for natural selection to operate.

Survival of the Fittest

A concept within natural selection suggesting that organisms best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits.

Galápagos Islands

The location where Darwin’s five-week visit provided key observations that contributed to the development of his theory of evolution.

1. Evolution as Such

2. Common Descent

3. Gradualism

4. Population Speciation

Five Main Points of Darwinism

Evolution as Such

Species change over time.

Common Descent

All life shares a common ancestor.

Gradualism

Evolutionary change is slow and gradual.

Population Speciation

New species arise from existing ones through variation within populations.

Freudian Revolution

intellectual movement led by Sigmund Freud that radically changed how the human mind and personality were understood, marking a turning point in psychology.

Sigmund Freud

An Austrian neurologist (1856–1939) who founded psychoanalysis and introduced groundbreaking ideas about the unconscious mind and personality development.

Psychoanalysis

A theory and therapeutic method developed by Freud focused on unconscious processes influencing behavior, including dream analysis and free association.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

Freud’s theory that personality is shaped by the conflict and interaction among three mental structures: the id, ego, and superego.

Id

The primitive and instinctual part of the mind that seeks immediate gratification of basic urges and desires.

Ego

The rational part of the mind that mediates between the desires of the id and the morals of the superego; operates in reality.

Superego

The moral conscience that incorporates societal and parental standards of right and wrong.

Unconscious Mind

Freud’s concept of a part of the mind that contains desires, memories, and experiences outside of conscious awareness that influence behavior.

Dreams

Considered by Freud as the “royal road to the unconscious,” where repressed desires and conflicts are symbolically expressed.

Infantile Sexuality

A controversial Freudian idea that early childhood experiences and unconscious sexual desires shape adult personality.

Libido

The instinctual psychic energy associated with sexual desires and drives, which Freud believed was central to human behavior and development.

Repression

A defense mechanism where distressing memories or desires are pushed into the unconscious to avoid anxiety.

Transference

A phenomenon in therapy where patients project feelings about significant people in their lives onto the therapist.

1. Levels of the Mind

2. Levels of Personality

3. Psychosexual stages of Development

What are the 3 aspects of personality from Sigmund Freud?

• Conscious mind

• Pre-conscious mind

• Unconscious/subconcious mind

What are the 3 levels of the mind from Sigmund Freud?

Conscious mind

(Under 3 levels of the mind from Sigmund Freud) Aware, has thoughts and perceptions

Pre-conscious mind

(Under 3 levels of the mind from Sigmund Freud)

Contains just below the surface of awareness

• Id

• Ego

• Super Ego

What are the 3 Structure of Personality from Sigmund Freud?

• Oral (0-1yrs old)

• Anal (1-3yrs old)

• Phallic (4-6yrs old)

• Latency (7-12yrs old)

• Genital (13+ yrs old)

What are the Psychosexual Stages by Sigmund Freud? (5)

Oral (0-1yrs old)

(Under Psychosexual stages by Sigmund Freud) Pleasure centers on the mouth.

Anal (1-3yrs old)

(Under Psychosexual stages by Sigmund Freud)

Pleasure of bowel and bladder elimination.

Latency (7-12yrs old)

(Under Psychosexual stages by Sigmund Freud)

Dormant sexual feelings.

Phallic (4-6yrs old)

(Under Psychosexual stages by Sigmund Freud)

Pleasure zone in the genitals.

Genital (13+ yrs old)

(Under Psychosexual stages by Sigmund Freud)

Maturation of sexual intercourse.

Psychotherapy

Psychodynamic therapies that treat a myriad of psychological disorders still remain largely informed by Freud's work on psychoanalysis