U1a AP Psych In-Class Notes: Biological Structures

Acetylcholine (ACH)

A neurotransmitter that produces muscle action and contractions, also involved in memory formation and learning.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in voluntary muscle movements, attention, learning, memory, and rewarding sensations.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, wakefulness, eating, and aggressive behaviors.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters involved in pain control and positive emotions, often released during exercise.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, stress response, and eating, playing a role in the fight/flight response.

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates sleep-wake cycles and helps balance excitatory messages.

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter that enhances the transmission of sensory information and can cause overstimulation.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception and the immune system.

Psychoactive Drug

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.

Tolerance

The diminishing effect of a drug with regular use, requiring larger doses to achieve the same effect.

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress following the discontinuation of an addictive drug.

Physical Dependence

The physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.

Psychological Dependence

The psychological need to use a drug, often to relieve negative emotions.

Agonists

Substances that bind to receptor sites and mimic neurotransmitters.

Antagonists

Substances that bind to receptor sites and prevent neurotransmitters from binding.

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters in the brain.

Depressants

Substances that slow down the activity of the central nervous system.

Opiates

Drugs that temporarily depress neural activity, lessening pain and anxiety.

Stimulants

Substances that excite behavioral and mental activity, speeding up body functions.

Amphetamines

Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing energy and mood changes.

Methamphetamines

A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system.

Caffeine

A stimulant that reduces drowsiness and improves problem-solving ability.

Nicotine

A stimulant that elevates moods but has major health risks such as cancer.

Cocaine

A stimulant that causes self-confidence and euphoria but has high dependency potential.

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A hallucinogenic amphetamine that produces visual hallucinations and severe long-term effects.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images without sensory input.

LSD

The most powerful hallucinogenic drug, causing memory loss and paranoia.

THC

The active ingredient in marijuana that produces various psychoactive effects.

Reflexes

Simple automatic responses to sensory stimuli.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The part of the nervous system that includes all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the PNS that controls automatic bodily functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that triggers the fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after stress.

Endocrine System

A system of glands that secrete hormones affected by the hypothalamus.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that affect other tissues.

Pituitary Gland

The 'master gland' that regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Cerebrum

The largest and most complex part of the brain, responsible for complex mental activities.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-order brain functions.

Motor Cortex

The area of the brain controlling voluntary movements, located in the frontal lobe.

Association Areas

Parts of the cerebral cortex that are not directly involved in sensory or motor functions.

Frontal Lobe

Brain region that deals with decision making, problem solving, and personality.

Broca’s Area

Brain area that controls muscles involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

Brain area responsible for interpreting written and spoken language.

Occipital Lobes

Brain areas that process visual information.

Contralateral Control

The phenomenon where one hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.