GROUPS AND VARIATIONS

Group

any collection of at least two people who interact regularly and share a sense of connection or shared identity. Groups shape the social nature, values, and ideals of individuals.

Charles Cooley (1909)

classified groups into two main types: primary groups and secondary groups.

Primary Groups

small, close-knit groups where people build strong emotional bonds. Members interact face-to-face over a long period of time and help shape who individuals are, especially during early socialization.

Examples of Primary Groups

families, close friends, peers, neighbors, classmates, sororities, fraternities, and church communities. They are characterized by informal communication and strong emotional connections.

Secondary Groups

larger and more impersonal groups that are often task-focused and time-limited. They serve an instrumental function and are more goal-oriented than emotional.

Examples of Secondary Groups

classrooms and offices.

William Sumner (1840–1910)

introduced the concepts of in-group and out-group to describe group inclusion and exclusion.

In-Group

a social group a person identifies with and feels a sense of belonging to. Members use terms like “we,” “us,” or “tayo” and see the group as an important part of their identity.

In-Group Bias

the tendency of people to prefer members of their own group.

Examples of In-Groups

clubs, churches, or schools where individuals feel proud to belong.

Out-Group

a group that a person does not identify with or belong to. It may create feelings of difference, discomfort, rivalry, distrust, or competition.

Reference Group

a group that people use as a standard for evaluating themselves. People compare their behaviors, attitudes, and choices to reference groups to shape their actions and understand what is normal or acceptable in society.