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aggregation
The process of counting or averaging individual-level data in some context to capture individual-level concepts at the group level
artifact count/assessment
The process of cataloging social artifacts and objects, qualitatively or quantitatively
attrition
The loss of sample members over time, usually to death or dropout
categorical variables
Variables that have a finite set of possible values that are fixed and distinct from one another with unknown differences between them
closed-ended question
A focused interview question to which subjects can respond only in preset ways
concept
An idea that can be named, defined, and eventually measured in some way
conceptualization
The process of precisely defining ideas and turning them into variables
continuous variables
Variables that could have an infinite set of possible values that exist on a continuum from low to high with meaningful and identifiable differences between them
control group
The group that is not exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable
cross-sectional study design
A study in which data are collected at only one time point
dimension
A component of a concept that represents a particular manifestation, angle, or unit
ecological fallacy
A mistake that researchers make by drawing conclusions about the micro level based on some macro-level analysis
exhaustive
Preset response categories that give all subjects at least one accurate response
experimental group
The group that is exposed to the experimental manipulation
indicator
The value assigned to a variable
interval variables
Variables with a continuum of values with meaningful distances (or intervals) between them but no true zero
longitudinal study design
A study in which data are collected at multiple time points
manipulation
Something that is done to some subjects of an experiment but not others so that the outcomes of the two groups can be compared
mutually exclusive
Preset response categories that do not overlap with one another, ensuring that respondents select the single category that best captures their views
nominal variables
Variables with states or statuses that are parallel and cannot be ranked or ordered
observation
The process of seeing, recording, and assessing social phenomena
open-ended question
A broad interview question to which subjects are allowed to respond in their own words rather than in preset ways
operationalization
The process of linking the conceptualized variables to a set of procedures for measuring them
ordinal variables
Variables with categories that can be ordered in some way but have unknowable differences between them
panel design
A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected on the same subjects at multiple time points
ratio variables
Variables with a continuum of values with meaningful distances (or intervals) between them and a true zero
reductionism
A mistake that researchers make by drawing conclusions about the macro-level unit based on analyses of micro-level data
reliability
A quality of a measure concerning how dependable it is
repeated cross-sectional study design
A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected at multiple time points but from different subjects at each time point
report
Direct feedback, written or verbal, from people
response categories
The preset answers to questions on a survey
social artifact
A concrete aspect of social life that can be counted, such as a newspaper article, tombstone, or te t message
unit of analysis
The level of social life about which we want to generalize
validity
A quality of a measure concerning how accurate it is
variables
Representations that capture the different dimensions, categories, or levels of a concept
Cohen’s kappa (K)
A calculation that measures intercoder reliability based on agreement between coders on a set of items
composite variable
A variable that averages a set of items (typically from a survey) to measure some concept
concurrent validity
A dimension of validity concerning how strongly a measure correlates with some preexisting measure of the construct that has already been deemed valid
construct validity
A dimension of validity concerning how well multiple indicators are connected to some underlying factor
content validity
A dimension of validity concerning how well a measure encompasses the many different meanings of a single concept
convergent validity
A dimension of validity gauging whether concepts that should be associated with each other are
criterion-related validity
A dimension of validity concerning how closely a measure is associated with some other factor
discriminant validity
A dimension of validity gauging whether concepts that should not be associated with each other are not
external validity
A dimension of validity concerning the degree to which the results of a study can generalize beyond the study
face validity
A dimension of validity concerning whether a measure looks valid
intercoder reliability
A type of reliability that reveals how much different coders or observers agree with one another when looking at the same data
internal reliability
The degree to which the various items in a composite variable lead to a consistent response and, therefore, are tapping into the same concept
internal validity of a measure
The degree to which a measure truly and accurately measures the defined concepts
internal validity of a study
The degree to which a study establishes a causal effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
manipulation
Something that is done to some subjects of an experiment but not others so that the outcomes of the two groups can be compared
pilot testing
The process of administering some measurement protocol to a small preliminary sample of subjects as a means of assessing how well the measure works
precision
A quality of measurement referring to how detailed and specific it is
predictive validity
A dimension of validity concerning how strongly a measure correlates with a measure that it should predict
reliability
A quality of a measure concerning how dependable it is
robustness
A quality of an operational protocol referring to how well it works
split-half method
A method of testing robustness in which the similarity of results is assessed after administering one subset of an item to a sample and then another subset
test-retest method
A method of testing robustness in which the similarity of results is assessed after administering a measure to the same sample at two different times
vignette
A short description of characters or situations that is presented to respondents in order to elicit a response
Cronbach’s alpha (α)
A calculation that measures a specific kind of reliability for a composite variable
administrative records
Data collected by government agencies or corporations as part of their own record-keeping
big data
Data sets with billions of pieces of information, typically created through individuals’ interactions with technology
case-oriented research
Research in which social scientists immerse themselves in an enormous amount of detail about a small number of cases, or even just a single case
census
A study that includes data on every member of a population, as opposed to only a sample
cluster sampling
A probability sampling strategy in which researchers divide up the target population into groups, or “clusters,” first selecting clusters randomly and then selecting individuals within those clusters
confidence interval
A range of possible estimates in which researchers can have a specific degree of confidence; includes the population parameter
confidence level
The probability that a confidence interval includes the population parameter
convenience sample
A sample that selects observations based on what is cheapest or easiest
deviant case
A case that is unusual, unexpected, or hard to explain given what we currently understand
key informant
A person who is usually quite central or popular in the research setting and who shares his or her knowledge with the researcher or a person with professional or special knowledge about the social setting
margin of error
The amount of uncertainty in an estimate; equal to the distance between the estimate and the boundary of the confidence interval
nonprobability sample
A sample that is not drawn using a method of random selection.
oversample
A group that is deliberately sampled at a rate higher than its frequency in the population
population parameter
A number that characterizes some quantitative aspect of a population
postsurvey weighting
When a sample is weighted to match known characteristics of the population from which it is drawn
probability sample
A sample in which (a) random chance is used to select participants for the sample, and (b) each individual has a probability of being selected that can be calculated
purposive sampling
A sampling strategy in which cases are deliberately selected on the basis of features that distinguish them from other cases
sample
A subset of a population selected for a study
sampling
The process of deciding what or whom to observe when you cannot observe and analyze everything or everyone
sampling distribution
A set of estimates that would be observed from a large number of independent samples that are all the same size and drawn using the same method
sampling error
The difference between the estimates from a sample and the true parameter that arise due to random chance
sampling for range
A purposive sampling strategy in which researchers try to ma imize respondents’ range of e periences with the phenomena under study
sampling frame
A list of population members from which a probability sample is drawn
saturation
When new materials (interviews, observations, survey responses) fail to yield new insights and simply reinforce what the researcher already knows
sequential sampling
A flexible sampling strategy used in case-based research in which researchers make decisions about what additional data to collect based on their findings from data they’ve already collected
simple random sample
A type of probability sample in which each individual has the same probability of being selected and in which each pair of individuals has the same probability of being selected
snowball sampling
A sampling strategy in which the researcher starts with one respondent who meets the requirement for inclusion and then asks the respondent to recommend another person to contact (who also meets the requirement for inclusion)
strata
Subgroups that a population is divided into for the purposes of drawing a sample. Individuals are drawn from each stratum
stratified sampling
A probability sampling strategy in which the population is divided into groups, or strata, and sample members are selected in strategic proportions from each group
systematic error
A flaw built into the design of the study that causes a sample estimate to diverge from the population parameter
systematic sample
A probability sampling strategy in which sample members are selected by using a fixed interval, such as taking every fifth person on a list of everyone in the population
target population
A group about which social scientists attempt to make generalizations
typical
When a case’s features are similar in as many respects as possible to the average of the population it is supposed to represent, and when nothing makes it stand out as unusual
unbiased
A sample estimate that is the same as the population parameter except for the difference caused by random chance
variable-oriented research
Research in which social scientists study a large number of cases, such as undergraduates or employment discrimination lawsuits, but only with information organized into variables about each case
weighted
Samples in which some cases should be counted more or less than others in producing estimates
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