Beliefs in Society Sociologist Names

Durkheim

Define religion in terms of the contribution it makes to society (integrating people into the value consensus) rather than the belief in the supernatural. (Functional) Believed although religion would decline in importance but still be relevant in society.

Weber

Defines religion as a belief in god or the supernatural. (Substantive) Believed rationalisation would cause religion to decline and disappear.

Aldridge

Defines religion by individuals’ own personal definitions and meanings. (Constructionist)

Polanyi

Circulatory explanations, subsidiary explanations and denial of legitimacy to rivals.

Popper

Science is an open belief system due to falsificationism.

Merton

CUDOS norms (Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organised Scepticism)

Kuhn

Science is a closed belief system due to paradigms.

Gellner

Nationalism is a modern phenomenon that keeps modern society together.

Anderson

Nationalism creates an imagined community.

Marks

Science is used to justify excluding women by claiming education would go against their natural vocation.

Mannheim

Belief systems are one-sided. Ideological thought and Utopian thought. Free floating intellgentsia.

Evans-Pritchard

Azande Witchcraft

Wallis

Typologies: world-affirming, world-accommodating and world rejecting

Marx

Religion is used to control the working class. Once capitalism is replaced there will be no purpose for religion.

Bruce

Technological worldview. Industrialisation causing a decline in religion due to larger urban cities and individualisation. Cultural defence and transition.

Parsons

Structural Differentiation leads to disengagement.

Berger

Religious diversity creates a crisis of credibility for religions and undermines their plausibility structure. Catholic dominance in the Middle Ages was a sacred canopy.

Beckford

Religious diversity strengthens beliefs.

Norris & Inglehart

Existential security theory

Gill & Lundergaarde

Found that the more a country spends on welfare, the lower the religious participation.

Wilson

America was secular in 1962. 45% attended church but religion was a superficial expression of American life.

Lynd & Lynd

94% of American churchgoers in 1924 thought Christianity was the one true religion compared to 41% in 1977.

Niebuhr

Sects face denomination or death.

Stark & Bainbridge

Sectarian Cycle: 1) schism from Church 2) Initial fervour 3) Denominationalism 4) Establishment. Audience cults, client cults and cultic movements.

Davie

Shift of religion from obligation to consumption. Believing without belonging. Church is a spiritual health service.

Bibby

In 1993 25% of Canadians attended church, but 80% had religious beliefs.

Voas and Crocket

Evidence from 6000 respondents suggested both believing and belonging was falling in Britain and other European countries.

Hervieu-Lever

Spiritual shopping. Pic n Mix faiths. Cultural amnesia. Pilgrims vs converts.

Lyon

Electronic church and televangelism. Religion in a ‘sphere of consumption’. Re-enchantment.

Ammerman

1987 study on American Christian Fundamentalists found people went to multiple churches for different reasons.

Heelas

New Age shift to self-spirituality. De-traditionalism. Rapid social changes means people turn to NAMs for certainty.

Heelas & Woodhead

Spiritual Revolution in Kendal. Congregational domain vs holistic domain. Shift to subjective culture.

Gould

Science only explains the natural world eg: theories of evolution whilst religion provides moral explanations.

Giddens

Fundamentalism is on the rise due to changes in late modernity eg: globalisation, choice, uncertainty, risk, liberalism & cosmopolitanism, undermining of traditional social norms.

Castells

Project identities and resistant identities as a response to postmodernism

Beckford

Criticises Giddens & Castells. Claims they ignore globalisation’s effect on ‘general’ religions and that Gidden’s doesn’t distinguish between different types of fundamentalism. Sees extremism as not just a reaction to globalisation but more local problems too.

Bruce

Fundamentalism is confined to monotheistic religions as polytheistic religions are more open to different interpretations. Third world fundamentalism and western fundamentalism.

Almond

The rise of fundamentalism is due to an attempt to ‘save’ religion as globalisation is spreading rational secular ideas

Bruce

Fundamentalism is a reaction to globalisation and modernisation. Structural differentiation means institutions are less religious and increased equal rights and personal choice means people feel the need to spread their religion to preserve and protect it

Davie

2 phases of modernity: 1) Enlightenment period where a shift to science and religion meant religious fundamentalism occurred due to people doubling down on their beliefs 2) Enlightenment project is under attack due to decline of belief in met-narratives creates secular fundamentalism

Ansel

Secular fundamentalism is cultural racism. Liberal language like universal equality and social integration is used as an excuse to dislike and exclude cultural minorities

Huntingdon

Clash of civilisations

Norris & Inglehart

The divide between the Western and Muslim world is not based on religious values (both hold values of love and peace) but instead liberal vs traditional values

Nanda

Globalisation in India has created a growing middle class, that have become more religious. Hinduism is seen as fashionable and has changed to preach desire is ok to legitimise their wealth. Also equated to nationalism.

Lehman

Christianity has globalised in 2 phases: 1) being imposed by conquest 2) gaining popularity. Pentecostalism is successful as it appeals to the poor (values of hard work and discipline) and adapts to local beliefs and cultures.

Durkheim

Religion reinforces the collective conscience, develops self-discipline and creates social cohesion. Sacred vs profane objects. Rituals and totemic worship (Arunta Tribe).

Parsons

Religion serves psychological functions, legitimises society’s norms and values and answer life’s big ultimate questions providing stability by attaching value to life.

Malinowski

Religion promotes solidarity by performing psychological functions when an important outcome is uncontrollable and uncertain (fishing in Trobriand Islands). Religion helps in times of crisis eg: births, deaths, marriage, puberty

Bellah

Civil religion - a belief system making society sacred to gain loyalty of citizens

Marx

Religion would disappear in a classless society. Religion is a ruling class ideological weapon used to legitimise working class suffering. Religion is a product of alienation, dulling pain of exploitation and hiding the cause.

Lenin

Religion is spiritual gin provided by the ruling class to manipulate the working class and prevent them from revolution by creating a mystical fog obscuring reality.

Althusser

Religion is part of the Ideological State Apparatus.

Saadawi

Religion is used to oppress women but not the direct cause. The emergence of patriarchal societies in the last few thousand years caused religious beliefs to be reinterpreted by men through a patriarchal lens. Monotheism legitimises male domination of women.

Woodhead

Catholic church excluding women from priesthood means they are uncomfortable with female emancipation. Not all religions are patriarchal - there are religious forms of feminism where women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.

Armstrong

Early religions placed women at the centre eg: fertility cultures and earth mother goddesses but monotheistic religions with one all-powerful male god emergence 4000 years ago made religions more patriarchal.

Rinaldo

Piety movements (conservative movements support traditional teachings about the women’s role) can be used by women to further their own interests (mainly joined by middle class urban women)

De Beauvoir

Religion is an instrument of male authority to keep women submissive and oppressed as men control religion with “God-given authority”. Legitimises female suffering with promise of rewards in the afterlife.

Weber

Calvinism/Protestant Work Ethic leading to capitalism.

Bruce

Religion’s role in social protest: Civil Rights Movement and The New Christian Right

McGuire

Social change caused by religion depends on values central to the culture of society and embedded culture norms

Marx

Religion is capable of humanising a world made inhumane by exploitation, even if the comfort offered is an illusion.

Engles

Religion has dual character that disguises inequality but has the capacity to change the status quo.

Gramsci

Religion has a dual character, can be used for for ideological power and to develop a counter-hegemony.

Billings

Religion can be used to inspire people to improve society eg: Coal Miners in Kentucky

Maduro

Liberation theory

Lehmann

Pentecostalism also caused social change in Latin America. Liberation theology = community political action. Pentecostalism = private action.

Miller & Hoffman

Women are more religious because: they are more risk adverse, they are socialised to be passive, obedient and caring - traits valued by religion and they are more likely to work part time or be full time carers so have more flexibility to be involved in religion.

Davie

Women are closer to birth and death due to child rearing and caring for the elderly so are more exposed to risk and mortality

Woodhead

Traditional religion has not kept up with female progression in the rest of society, so women are more likely to join NAMs as they are more about personal development without hierarchy, are closer to nature and provide status and self-worth that can’t be achieved in traditional religion.

Bruce

Middle class women are attracted to NAMs focussed around control, self-development and individualisation. Working class women are more attracted to traditional religion focussed around a higher being and fatalistic ideas.

Stark & Bainbridge

Women are attracted to sects due to providing compensators to organismic, ethical and social deprivation more likely to be faced by women

Brusco

Despite being patriarchal, women turn to Pentecostalism because it demands an ascetic lifestyle that forces men to provide for their household instead of gambling/prostitutes etc which raises women’s living standards. Particularly relevant in Latin America.

Madood

Minority ethnic groups (mins Chinese) are more likely to attend places of worship than white people. Black Christians are 3x more likely to attend church than white Christians.

Brierly

Pentecostalism has remained popular among the African Christian population with 3 new churches each week since 1998

Beckford

Pentecostalism is inspirational and gives a greater sense of independence to the Black British population.

Pryce

Study of African Caribbean community in Bristol. Pentecostalism = highly adaptive religion of the oppressed that helps to adapt to a new environment by encouraging self-reliance, mutual support and hope

Voas & Crockett

The ageing effect = older people are more religious as they turn to religion closer to death because they face up to their own mortality. The cohort effect = a generation’s experience determines levels of religiosity. Secularisation = most important reason older people are more religious.

Weber

Theodicy of misfortune (wealth = evil) attracts working class to religion. Theodicy of good fortune attracts higher classes to religion (worldly success indicates virtue)