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Durkheim
Define religion in terms of the contribution it makes to society (integrating people into the value consensus) rather than the belief in the supernatural. (Functional) Believed although religion would decline in importance but still be relevant in society.
Weber
Defines religion as a belief in god or the supernatural. (Substantive) Believed rationalisation would cause religion to decline and disappear.
Aldridge
Defines religion by individualsâ own personal definitions and meanings. (Constructionist)
Polanyi
Circulatory explanations, subsidiary explanations and denial of legitimacy to rivals.
Popper
Science is an open belief system due to falsificationism.
Merton
CUDOS norms (Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organised Scepticism)
Kuhn
Science is a closed belief system due to paradigms.
Gellner
Nationalism is a modern phenomenon that keeps modern society together.
Anderson
Nationalism creates an imagined community.
Marks
Science is used to justify excluding women by claiming education would go against their natural vocation.
Mannheim
Belief systems are one-sided. Ideological thought and Utopian thought. Free floating intellgentsia.
Evans-Pritchard
Azande Witchcraft
Wallis
Typologies: world-affirming, world-accommodating and world rejecting
Marx
Religion is used to control the working class. Once capitalism is replaced there will be no purpose for religion.
Bruce
Technological worldview. Industrialisation causing a decline in religion due to larger urban cities and individualisation. Cultural defence and transition.
Parsons
Structural Differentiation leads to disengagement.
Berger
Religious diversity creates a crisis of credibility for religions and undermines their plausibility structure. Catholic dominance in the Middle Ages was a sacred canopy.
Beckford
Religious diversity strengthens beliefs.
Norris & Inglehart
Existential security theory
Gill & Lundergaarde
Found that the more a country spends on welfare, the lower the religious participation.
Wilson
America was secular in 1962. 45% attended church but religion was a superficial expression of American life.
Lynd & Lynd
94% of American churchgoers in 1924 thought Christianity was the one true religion compared to 41% in 1977.
Niebuhr
Sects face denomination or death.
Stark & Bainbridge
Sectarian Cycle: 1) schism from Church 2) Initial fervour 3) Denominationalism 4) Establishment. Audience cults, client cults and cultic movements.
Davie
Shift of religion from obligation to consumption. Believing without belonging. Church is a spiritual health service.
Bibby
In 1993 25% of Canadians attended church, but 80% had religious beliefs.
Voas and Crocket
Evidence from 6000 respondents suggested both believing and belonging was falling in Britain and other European countries.
Hervieu-Lever
Spiritual shopping. Pic n Mix faiths. Cultural amnesia. Pilgrims vs converts.
Lyon
Electronic church and televangelism. Religion in a âsphere of consumptionâ. Re-enchantment.
Ammerman
1987 study on American Christian Fundamentalists found people went to multiple churches for different reasons.
Heelas
New Age shift to self-spirituality. De-traditionalism. Rapid social changes means people turn to NAMs for certainty.
Heelas & Woodhead
Spiritual Revolution in Kendal. Congregational domain vs holistic domain. Shift to subjective culture.
Gould
Science only explains the natural world eg: theories of evolution whilst religion provides moral explanations.
Giddens
Fundamentalism is on the rise due to changes in late modernity eg: globalisation, choice, uncertainty, risk, liberalism & cosmopolitanism, undermining of traditional social norms.
Castells
Project identities and resistant identities as a response to postmodernism
Beckford
Criticises Giddens & Castells. Claims they ignore globalisationâs effect on âgeneralâ religions and that Giddenâs doesnât distinguish between different types of fundamentalism. Sees extremism as not just a reaction to globalisation but more local problems too.
Bruce
Fundamentalism is confined to monotheistic religions as polytheistic religions are more open to different interpretations. Third world fundamentalism and western fundamentalism.
Almond
The rise of fundamentalism is due to an attempt to âsaveâ religion as globalisation is spreading rational secular ideas
Bruce
Fundamentalism is a reaction to globalisation and modernisation. Structural differentiation means institutions are less religious and increased equal rights and personal choice means people feel the need to spread their religion to preserve and protect it
Davie
2 phases of modernity: 1) Enlightenment period where a shift to science and religion meant religious fundamentalism occurred due to people doubling down on their beliefs 2) Enlightenment project is under attack due to decline of belief in met-narratives creates secular fundamentalism
Ansel
Secular fundamentalism is cultural racism. Liberal language like universal equality and social integration is used as an excuse to dislike and exclude cultural minorities
Huntingdon
Clash of civilisations
Norris & Inglehart
The divide between the Western and Muslim world is not based on religious values (both hold values of love and peace) but instead liberal vs traditional values
Nanda
Globalisation in India has created a growing middle class, that have become more religious. Hinduism is seen as fashionable and has changed to preach desire is ok to legitimise their wealth. Also equated to nationalism.
Lehman
Christianity has globalised in 2 phases: 1) being imposed by conquest 2) gaining popularity. Pentecostalism is successful as it appeals to the poor (values of hard work and discipline) and adapts to local beliefs and cultures.
Durkheim
Religion reinforces the collective conscience, develops self-discipline and creates social cohesion. Sacred vs profane objects. Rituals and totemic worship (Arunta Tribe).
Parsons
Religion serves psychological functions, legitimises societyâs norms and values and answer lifeâs big ultimate questions providing stability by attaching value to life.
Malinowski
Religion promotes solidarity by performing psychological functions when an important outcome is uncontrollable and uncertain (fishing in Trobriand Islands). Religion helps in times of crisis eg: births, deaths, marriage, puberty
Bellah
Civil religion - a belief system making society sacred to gain loyalty of citizens
Marx
Religion would disappear in a classless society. Religion is a ruling class ideological weapon used to legitimise working class suffering. Religion is a product of alienation, dulling pain of exploitation and hiding the cause.
Lenin
Religion is spiritual gin provided by the ruling class to manipulate the working class and prevent them from revolution by creating a mystical fog obscuring reality.
Althusser
Religion is part of the Ideological State Apparatus.
Saadawi
Religion is used to oppress women but not the direct cause. The emergence of patriarchal societies in the last few thousand years caused religious beliefs to be reinterpreted by men through a patriarchal lens. Monotheism legitimises male domination of women.
Woodhead
Catholic church excluding women from priesthood means they are uncomfortable with female emancipation. Not all religions are patriarchal - there are religious forms of feminism where women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.
Armstrong
Early religions placed women at the centre eg: fertility cultures and earth mother goddesses but monotheistic religions with one all-powerful male god emergence 4000 years ago made religions more patriarchal.
Rinaldo
Piety movements (conservative movements support traditional teachings about the womenâs role) can be used by women to further their own interests (mainly joined by middle class urban women)
De Beauvoir
Religion is an instrument of male authority to keep women submissive and oppressed as men control religion with âGod-given authorityâ. Legitimises female suffering with promise of rewards in the afterlife.
Weber
Calvinism/Protestant Work Ethic leading to capitalism.
Bruce
Religionâs role in social protest: Civil Rights Movement and The New Christian Right
McGuire
Social change caused by religion depends on values central to the culture of society and embedded culture norms
Marx
Religion is capable of humanising a world made inhumane by exploitation, even if the comfort offered is an illusion.
Engles
Religion has dual character that disguises inequality but has the capacity to change the status quo.
Gramsci
Religion has a dual character, can be used for for ideological power and to develop a counter-hegemony.
Billings
Religion can be used to inspire people to improve society eg: Coal Miners in Kentucky
Maduro
Liberation theory
Lehmann
Pentecostalism also caused social change in Latin America. Liberation theology = community political action. Pentecostalism = private action.