Oral Comms

Cicero’s Canons of Rhetoric

Stages of creating effective language.

Invention (Generating ideas), Arrangement (Organizing Ideas), Style (Choosing language), Memory (Memorizing the Material), and Delivery (Presenting Ideas)

Aristotle’s 3 Proofs

Ethos (Credibility appeal), Pathos (Emotional appeal), Logos (Logical appeal)

Secondary Dimensions of Credibility

Inspire (passion and pursuade), Dynamicism (vocalics), Sociability (talking ability), Composure (comfortability)

3 Ds of Informative Speaking

Define, Describe, Demonstrate

5 Cs

Character (Ethos), Charisma (Pathos), Competence (Logos), Credibility, Confidence

Three Stages of Credibility

Initial (before you start), Derived (the journey throughout), Terminal (the lasting credibility)

Hearing and Critical Listing

Receiving, Understanding, Evaluating, Remembering, Responding

Determining Credibility of Source

Evaluation, Evidence, Plausibility, Arguments, Consistency

Four Stages of Perception

Selecting, Organizing, Interpreting, Evaluating

Selective Exposure

When you are surrounded by only things you agree with; the idea that you are more likely to expose yourself to that which supports your beliefs, values, and attitudes

Schemata

The first iteration of something that is pictured in the mind when the idea is brought up

Prototype

The ideal iteration of something, best case scenario

Personal Construct

The way that one thinks about themselves, in a bipolar way (friendly vs. unfriendly)

Front and Back Region

Front is what you give out to the world, Back is how you really feel

Self-Description

Info about yourself that is obvious from your appearance

Self-Disclosure

What you choose to share with people

Narrative

A way of self-disclosing; telling a story

Symbolic Self

The self that is transacted in interaction with other people; that arises out of social interaction, not vice versa; and, hence, that does not just “belong to you”

Symbolic Interactionism

How broad social forces affect or even transact an individual person’s view of who he or she is

Attitude of Reflection

Thinking about how you look in other people’s eyes, or reflecting that other people can see you as a social object from their point of view

Ethnocentric Bias

believing that the way one’s own culture does things is the right and normal way to do them

Individualistic Cultures

Ex. America- Personal achievement is lauded and reinforced through conversations with others. For instance, supervisors may talk with employees about the development of personal goals and post “employee of the month” placards to single out individual achievements.

Collectivistic Cultures

Ex. Sweden- Subscribing to a belief system that stresses group benefit and the overriding value of working harmoniously rather than individual personal advancement (contrast with individualist)

High Context Culture

subscribing to a belief system that stresses group benefit and the overriding value of working harmoniously rather than individual personal advancement (contrast with individualist)

Low Context Culture

People try to separate their relationships from the messages and to focus on the details and the logic.

Co-Cultures

Smaller groups of culture within a larger cultural mass

Intercultural Communication

Examines how people from different cultural/social structures interact with one another and what difficulties or conflicts they encounter (over and above the different languages they speak) once they come into contact with one another.

Relationship Filtering Model (funnel)

How you decide who you want to be friends with (basically)

Physical Appearance

Behavior (nonverbal)

Roles

Psychological Similarity

Relational Continuity Constructional Units (RCCUs)

Ways of demonstrating that the relationship persists during absence of face-to-face contact

Prospective (recognitions that a separation is about to occur) Introspective (reminders of the relationships during an absence, examples: photographs of a couple, wedding bands, or fluffy toys that one partner gave to another), Retrospective (directly recognize the end of an absence and the reestablishment of the relationship through actual interaction)

Relational Dialects

the study of contradictions in relationships—how they are played out and how they are managed

Internal/Dialectic

Openness/Closedness

Novelty/Predictability

Connection/Autonomy

The Breakdown Process Model

Intrapsychic (reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of a relationship and beginning to consider the possibility of ending it)

Dyadic (confrontation with a partner and the open discussion of a problem with the relationship)

Social (telling other people in one’s social network about dissatisfaction and about possible disengagement or dissolution of a relationship)

Grave Dressing (creating a story of why the relationship died and erecting a metaphorical tombstone that summarizes its main events and features from its birth to its death)

Resurrection Process (how people prepare themselves for new relationships after ending an old one - Vince thinks this is possibly getting back together)

Formal Group

Task oriented, general management oversight, outcome focused, often legislative or formally structured to run an organization

Congress, congressional committees, debate clubs, shareholder meetings, annual general meetings of organized bodies, executive committees of unions, student government organizations, legislative assemblies

Advisory Groups

Task specific, usually evidentiary or evaluative, with the intention of producing an outcome that is a focused “best solution” to a specific problem or arrangement of an event

Sorority and fraternity social affairs committees, homecoming committees, juries, accident investigation boards, review boards for awards and prizes

Creative Groups

Evaluation of concepts or creation of new products or approaches to complex problems

Brainstorming; consciousness raising; creativity groups; focus groups; test-bed groups for developing specifications and criteria for complex projects, such as the beta versions of new software; advertising logo development teams; student group projects

Support Groups

Advising, comforting, sharing knowledge, spreading information, and raising consciousness about specific issues

Alcoholics Anonymous, breast cancer survivors, grief support groups, study groups, PFLAG

Networking Groups

Obtaining, building, or sustaining relationships, usually online

Chat rooms, social networking groups, Twitter, Facebook

Group Characteristics

Cohesiveness: a sense of community or connection developed while working together

Interdependence: the reliance of individual members of a team or group on the other members, making their outcomes dependent on the collaboration and interrelated performance of all members (e.g., a football team dividing up the jobs of throwing, catching, and blocking)

Commitment: Looking out for each other’s interests

Group Norms: rules and procedures that occur in a group but not necessarily outside it and that are enforced by the use of power or rules for behavior

Roles: positions or functions within a group (see disruptive roles, formal roles, informal roles, social roles, and task roles)

Culture: the set of expectations and practices that a group develops to make itself distinctive from other groups and to give its members a sense of exclusive membership (e.g., dress code, specialized language, particular rituals)

Out-Groups

cells of disgruntled group members who feel undervalued, mistreated, disrespected, not included, or overlooked; these members can be either disruptive or constructive

Types of Roles

formal roles: specific functions to which group members are assigned and that they are expected to perform within the group

informal roles: roles to which group members are not officially assigned but that serve a function within the group

task roles: roles functioning to ensure a group achieves its goals and is productive

social roles: roles functioning to encourage group members and to develop and maintain positive communication and relationships among group members

disruptive roles: roles functioning in opposition to group productivity and cohesion

Types of Leadership Roles

task leaders: leaders focusing on the performance of tasks to ensure the achievement of group goals (compare with socioemotional leaders)

socioemotional leaders: leaders focusing on making group members feel comfortable, satisfied, valued, and understood (compare with task leaders)

Types of Power

Legitimate: Created by a person’s office rank or official status, Designated chair of a group

Expert: Created through special knowledge of a particular topic, Group member with special knowledge of topic being considered

Referent: Created by the allegiance of one group of people to another person or group, Group member who is respected by other members and whom other members may want to emulate

Reward: Created by the power to give benefits to other people, or to manage or withhold them, Giving the floor to a group member who promises support on an upcoming vote or not allowing a disfavored member to participate

Cohesive: Created by the power to punish (as distinct from withholding of rewards, this means actual application of punishment), Chair of a formal group like Congress may sanction a member with a fine, for example, or may hold one “in contempt”

Vocational Anticipatory Socialization

the preparation for becoming a worker; takes place from early moments of childhood onward, including through exposure to the media and depiction of the workplace in comedy and other shows

Instrumental Goals

goals that are predominant at work and directed at completion of duties; can also involve a direct assessment of performance

Relational Goals

goals that typically involve intimacy and support

Formality/Hierarchy

creates distance between workers and management and establishes clear relational connections among people

Professional Face

the behaviors, courtesy, and interaction styles that are appropriate for people to present to others in a workplace

Structuration Theory

Anthony Giddens’ theory that points to the regularities of human relationships that act as rules and resources drawn on to enable or constrain social interaction

Industrial Time

the attention to punctuality and dedication to a task that is connected with the nature of industry (clocking in, clocking out, lunch breaks, etc.)

Relational Needs

The use of technology and media as a shared relational activity enables people to accomplish certain relational needs

1. Promoting Interaction: Technology and media enable interactions to take place. Even in technology- and media-rich households with multiple television sets, computers, and other technology and media systems, families often use technology and consume media together, which provides an opportunity for interactions to occur. Playing video games, for instance, is generally done with friends and other people, promoting interaction and influencing relationships

2. Withdrawing from Interactions: Technology and media also allow people to withdraw from social interaction. Texting and accessing materials using cell phones and other devices allow people to disengage from others when desired. People sometimes even pretend to use their cell phones to avoid interactions

3. Differentiating Relationships:The shared use of technology and media has even been shown to distinguish particular relationships from others. Nearly 40 years ago, it was discovered that watching television was the most frequent activity shared by spouses—it even outranked sex! More recently, Laura Padilla-Walker, Sarah Coyne, and Ashley Fraser (2012) found using cell phones and watching television and movies to be among the most common media shared by families.

4. Enacting and Evaluating Roles: The shared use of technology and media also enables people to establish and enact specific relational roles, expectations, and boundaries. For instance, relational boundaries must be evaluated when parents and children “friend” one another on Facebook

Socialization Impact of Media

depictions of relationships in media provide models of behavior that inform people about how to engage in relationships

Parasocial Relationships

“relationships” established with media characters and personalities

Media Equation

people use the same social rules and expectations when interacting with technology as they do with other people

Synchronous Communication

communication in which people interact in real time and can at once both send and receive messages

Asynchronous Communication

communication in which there is a slight or prolonged delay between the message and the response; the interactants must alternate between sending and receiving messages

Individual Inventory (Self?)

a listing of a person’s preferences, likes, dislikes, and experiences used when searching for a possible speech topic

Brainstorming

a method of gathering and generating ideas without immediate evaluation

Captive Audience

an audience that is required to listen to your presentation

Voluntary Audience

an audience that listens to your speech because its members have personally chosen to be there

Attitudes

learned predispositions to evaluate something in a positive or negative way that guide people’s thinking and behavior (like/dislike)

Beliefs

What a person holds to be true or false

Values

deeply held and enduring judgments of significance or importance that often provide the basis for both beliefs and attitudes

Thesis Statement

what a person argues or develops throughout a presentation

Purpose

Can be General (the basic objective you want to achieve through your presentation) or Specific (exactly what a person wants to achieve through a presentation)

Testimony

declarations or statements based on a person’s findings, opinions, conclusions, or experience.

Can be:

Personal: evidence given by a speaker that is based on personal experience or shared experience with the audience

Expert: evidence from someone with special training, instruction, or knowledge in a particular area

Lay: evidence from someone without expertise but who possesses relevant experience

Hypothetical Illustrations

fabricated illustrations using typical characteristics to describe particular situations, objects, or people, as well as illustrations describing what could happen in the future

Points Principle

Main Points and Subpoints

Organizational Patterns

Topical

Chronological

Spacial

Causal

Problem & Solution

Question & Answer

Elimination

Three Rules of Outlining

Unity

Guidance

Balance

Attention-Getter

?

Orientation Phase

Familiarize your audience with the topic and define terms if necessary

Attention-Getting Device Model

Gain the attention of your audience

Clincher Statement

Provide your audience with a memorable line or phrase that will enable you to end strongly and smoothly.

Expository Presentations

provides the audience with a detailed review of an object, creation, place, person, concept, or event

Strategies for Successful Informative Presentations

Build on Your Relationship With the Audience

Maintain a Narrow Focus

Adapt the Complexity

Be Clear and Simple

Use Clear Organization and Guide the Audience

Stress Significance and Relational Influence

Develop Relationships Through Language

Claim of Policy

a claim maintaining that a course of action should or should not be taken

Claim of Value

a claim maintaining that something is good or bad, beneficial or detrimental, or another evaluative criterion

Claim of Fact

a claim maintaining that something is true or false now

Claim of Conjecture

a claim that something will be true or false in the future

Presentation to Actuate

a presentation that is delivered in an attempt to influence audience members’ behavior rather than merely their beliefs

Fallacious Arguments

an argument that appears legitimate but is actually based on faulty reasoning or insufficient evidence

Appeal to Authority (fallacious)

when a person’s authority or credibility in one area is used to support another area

Ad Hominem (Also called argument against source)

when the source of a message, rather than the message itself, is attacked

Bandwagon Appeal (also appeal to people)

claims that something is good or beneficial because everyone else agrees with this evaluation

Appeal to Relationships

when relationships are used to justify certain behaviors and to convince others of their appropriateness

Hasty Generalizations

when a conclusion is based on a single occurrence or insufficient data or sample size

Red Herring

the use of another issue to divert attention away from the real issue

Equivocation

relies on the ambiguousness of language to make an argument

Inductive Reasoning

deriving a general conclusion from specific evidence, examples, or instances

Deductive Reasoning

using general conclusions, premises, or principles to reach a conclusion about a specific example or instance

Social Judgement Theory

theory explaining how people may respond to a range of positions surrounding a particular topic or issue

Latitude of Acceptance

includes the range of positions that the audience deems acceptable (social judgment theory)

Latitude of Rejection

includes those positions that the audience deems unacceptable (social judgement theory)

Latitude of Noncommitment

includes positions that the audience neither wholly accepts nor wholly rejects (social judgement theory)

Anchor Position

the preferred or most acceptable position

Styles of Delivery

Impromptu

Extemporaneous (outline)

Scripted

Memorized

Nonfluencies

Filler words and sounds

Distracting Mannerisms

bodily movements that allow a speaker to discharge nervous energy but serve no relevant purpose in the presentation and can divert attention from the message