Neuropharmacology Exam 1

Covers Chapters 1, 2, and 3

Pharmacology

the scientific study of the actions of drugs and their effects on a living organism

Neuropharmacology

area of pharmacology focusing on chemical substances that interact with the nervous ssytem to alter behavior, emotion, and cognition

psychopharmacology

area of pharmacology specializing in drug-induced changes in mood, thinking, and behavior

neuropsychopharmacology

area of pharmacology focusing on chemical substances that interact with the nervous system to alter behavior, drug, and cognition

drug action

the specific molecular changes produced by a drug when it binds to a particular target site or receptor

drug effects

wide spread alterations in physiological or psychological functions

therapeutic effects

desired physical or behavioral changes associated with a particular drug

side effects

undesired physical or behavioral changes associated with a particular drug

specific drug effects

physical or behavioral changes with associated with biochemical interactions of a drug with the target site

nonspecific drug effects

physical or behavioral changes not associated with the chemical activity of the drug-receptor interaction but with certain unique characteristics of the individual such as present mood or expectations of drug effects

placebo

substance that is pharmacologically inert, yet in many instances produces both therapeutic and side effects

nocebo

substance that is pharmacologically inert yet can produce negative therapeutic outcomes

double-blind experiment

type of experiment in which neither the patient nor the observer knows the treatment received by the patient

bioavalibility

concentration of drug present in the blood that is free to bind to specific target sites

pharmacokinetic

factors that contribute to bioavailability; the administration, absorption, distribution, binding, inactivation, and excretion of a drug

depot binding

type of drug interaction involving binding to an inactive site, such as to proteins in the plasma, to bone, or to fat

biotransformation

inactivation of a drug through a chemical change, usually by metabolic processes catalyzed by enzymes in the liver

systemic

routes of administration in which drugs distribute throughout the entire body; reaching the target tissue through general circulation

enteral

drug administration by oral or rectal routes

parenteral

methods of drug administration that do not to use the gastrointestinal system, such as intravenous, inhalation, intramuscular, transdermal, etc

oral administration

method that involves administering a drug through the mouth

absorption

movement of a drug from the site of administration to the circulatory system

first-pass metabolism

phenomenon in which the liver metabolizes some of a drug administration before it can circulate through the body, particularly when the drug ahs been taken orally

rectal administration

drug delivery method requiring placement of the drug (sometimes in the form of a suppository) into the rectum

intravenous (IV)

route of drug administration involving delivery of the compound directly into the blood strea, by means of injection into a vein

intramuscular (IM)

route of drug administration involving the injection of the compound into a muscle

intraperitoneal (IP)

route of drug administration involving injection of the compound through the abdominal wall into the peritoneal cavity-the space that surrounds the abdominal organs. It is a common route of administration for small laboratory animals.

subcutaneous (SC)

method that involves injection of a drug just below the skin

inhalation

route of drug administration involving intake through the lungs

sublingual administration

method of drug administration that requires placing the drug under the tongue in contact with the mucous membrane, which has a rich capillary network for rapid absorption into the blood

intranasal administration

route of drug administration involving delivery of the compound to the nasal mucosa

transdermal

method that involves administration of a drug through the skin

intrathecal

route of administration which a drug is infused into the subarachnoid space of the central nervous system

infusion pump

drug delivery via an implanted pump that delivers regular, constant doses to the body or into the cerebral ventricles

gene therapy

application of DNA that encodes a specific protein to increase or block expression of the gene product to correct a clinical connection

viral vectors

a modified virus used to deliver genetic material into brain cells to alter their function, study neural circuits, or treat neurological disorders

psychoactive drugs

those drugs that have an effect on thinking, mood, or behavior

bioactivation

a metabolic process that converts an inactive drug into an active receptor

drug redistribution

Highly lipid-soluble drugs given by intravenous or inhalation methods are initially distributed to organs with high blood flow

intracellular clefts

small gaps between adjacent cells. these gaps between endothelial cells of typical blood vessel permit the passage of molecules to and from the blood

fenestrations

large pores in endothelial cells allowing rapid exchange of materials between blood vessels and tissue

pinocytotic vessels

type of vesicles that envelop and transport large molecules across the capillary wall

astrocytes/astroglia

star-shaped glial cells that have numerous extensions and that modulate the chemical environment around neurons, metabolically assist neurons, and provide phagocytosis for cellular debris

tight junctions

connection between cells characterized by a fusing of adjoining cell membranes

teratogens

substances or agents that can cause structural or functional abnormalities in a developing fetus or embryo

drug depots/silent receptors

a storage area where drugs are kept and distributed

half-life

time required to remove half of the drug from the blood

steady state plasma level

the desired blood concentration of drug achieved when the absorption/distribution phase is equal to the metabolism/excretion phase

zero-order kinetics

a process where a drug is eliminated at a constant, fixed rate, regardless of its concentration

microsomal enzymes

enzymes in liver cells responsibe for metabolizing exogenous substances such as drugs

cytochrome P450(CYP450)

class of liver enzymes, in the microsomal enzyme group, responsible for both phase 1 and phase 2 biotransformation of psychoactive drugs

enzyme induction

increase in liver activity associated with a specific drug may cause more intense or prolonged effects of the other drugs taken at the same time

enzyme inhibition

in drug metabolism, reduction in liver enzyme activity associated with repeated rug use, which leads to drug tolerance

drug competiton

a factor that modifies biotransformation capacity

genetic polymorphisms

genetic variations in a population resulting in multiple forms of a particular protein

biomarker

quantifiable biological process that can be used to determine the presence of disease, as well at therapeutic or toxic effects of a drug

therapeutic drug monitoring

taking multiple blood samples to directly measure plasma levels of a drug after administration, to identify the optimum dosage for maximum therapeutic potential and minimal side effects

pharmacodynamics

study of a physiological and biochemical interactions of a drug with the target tissue responsible for the drugs effects

receptors

proteins located on the surface of or within cells that bind to specific ligands to initiate biological changes within the cell

ligand

molecule that selectively binds to a receptor

receptor agonists

neurochemicals or drugs that can bind to a particular receptor protein and alter the shape of the receptor to initiate a cellular response

affinity

ability of a molecule to bind to a receptor, when then determines potency

efficacy

the extent to which a ligand receptor binding initiates a biological action

receptor antangonists

molecules that interact with a receptor protein and produce no cellular effect after binding, and also prevent an “active” ligand from bonding

partial antagonists

drugs that bind to a receptor but have low officacy, producing weaker biological effects that a full agonist. hence, they act as agonists at some receptors concentration of full agonist. they were previously called mixed agonist-antagonists

inverse antagonists

substances that activate a receptor but produce the opposite effect of typical agonists at that receptor

constitutive activity

the baseline state of a protein, such as a neurotransmitter receptor,, in the absence of a ligand

up-regulation

a biological process where a cell increases the number or sensitivity of its receptors in response to a signal

down-regulation

the process where cells decrease the number of receptors on their surface in response to prolonged stimulation by a substance, such as a drug or hormone, leading to reduced sensitivity and a weaker cellular response

receptor subtypes

group of receptors that respond to the same neurotransmitter but that differ from each other to varying degrees with respect to their structure, signaling mechanisms, and pharmacology

potency

measure of the amount of drug necessary to produce a specific response. it is dependent o the affinity of the drug for the receptor and the strength of the signaling mechanism elcited by the drug receptor complex

therapeutic index

the relationship between the drug dose that results in a toxic response and the dose required for the desired biological reponse

competitive antagonists

drug that binds to a receptor but has little or no efficacy. when it competes with an agonist for receptor sites, it reduces the the effect of the agonist

non-competitive antagonists

drugs that reduce the effect of an agonist, but do not compete at the receptor site. the drug may bind to an inactive prtion of the receptor, disturb the cell membrane around the receptor, or interrupt the intercellular processes initiated by the agonist-receptor association

physiological antagonism

drug interaction characterized in two drugs that act in distinct ways and reduce each others effectiveness in the body

additive effects

drug interactions characterized by the collective sum of the two individual drug effects

potentiation

drug interaction characterized by an increase in effectiveness greater than the collective sumof the individual drugs

tolerance

decreased response to a drug as a direct result of repeated drug exposure

acute tolerance

rapid tolerance formed during a single administration of a drug, as is the case with alcohol

drug disposition tolerance/metabolic tolerance

type of tolerance to a drug that is characterized by by a reduced amount of drug available at the target tissue, often as a result of more-rapid drug metabolism

pharmacodynamic tolerance

type of tolerance formed by the changes in nerve cell functions in response to the continued presence of a drug

withdrawal syndrome

a collection of physical, psychological, and emotional symptoms that occur when a person who has developed physical dependence on a substance abruptly stops or significantly reduces their drug use

physical dependence

developed need for a drug, sucha s alcohol or opoids, by the body as a result of prolonged drug use. termination of drug use will lead to withdrawal

behavioral tolerance

the reduced effectiveness of a drug administered chronically that involves learning : either instrumental or classical conditioning

pavlovian conditioning/classical conditioning 

repeated pairing of a neutral simulus with an unconditioned stimulus. eventrually the neurtral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and elecits a (conditioned) response that is similar to the original unconditioned reponse. this type of learning has a role in drug use and tolerance

operant conditioning

type of learning in which animals learn to respond to obtain rewards and avoid punishment. explains drug tolerance when an animal learns to engage in behaviors when under the influence of a drugs

state-dependent learning

condition characterized by better perfrmace of a perticular task that was learnd in a drugged state in the same drugged state, rather than in a nondrugged state. tasks learned in a nondrugged state are likewise performed better in a nondrugged state

sensitization

enhanced respons to a particular drug after repeated drug exposure (reverse tolerance)

pharmacogenetics

study. fothe genetic basis for variability in drug response among individuals (sometimes called oharmacogenomics)

pharmacoepigenetics

study the role of epigenetic modifications in individual variation in response to drug effects

epigenetic

modifications to a gene arising from environmental or behavioral factors that can influence gene function

glial cells

supporting cells of the nervous system that insulate, protect, and metabollically support neurons

interneurons

nerve cells in the CNS and spinal cord that form complex neural circuits providing sensorimotor integration

motor neurons

nerve cells that transmit electrical signals from the CNS to muscles

convergence

process by which neurons receive and integrate the numerous signals from other cells

divergence

process by which neurons transmit their integrated signals back out to many neurons

axon hillock

the segment of axon adjacent to the soma where the action potential is first generated

axon collaterals

branches formed when an axon splits, giving the neurons the ability to signal more cells

chromatin remodeling

one type of environmentally induced epigenetic modification that increases or decreases gene transcripion

axoplasmic transport

method of transporting proteins along the microtubules of the cytoskeleton to designations throughout a neuron. anterograde transport moves newly synthesized proteins from the soma. retrograde transport moves waste back to the soma from the terminals