Sociology Final Exam

Sociology 

Social science focused on human behavior, thought & social organization within society. 

Study patterns of social relationships between individual & society & consequences of difference. 

Sociological Imagination

Recognition of relationship between who we are as individuals & the social & historical forces that shape our lives.

Using this allows us to “make the familiar strange”, which empowers us to question thoughts & behaviors that seem “natural” to us. 

Social Location

Includes social & physical traits of an individual deemed to be important by their society. Membership in each social category provides set of social roles & rules, power & privilege (& lack of), & influences our identity & how we perceive the world

Traits of Social Location 

Race, ethnicity, social class, gender, age, religion, sexual orientation, ability, age, community type, etc. 

Can positively or negatively impact access to opportunities & outcomes within social institutions, depending on associated status. 

Blame the Victim

Social problems as personal troubles, rather than public issues (individual explanation)

Blame the System

Sociologists think of social problems as public issues rooted in inequalities within the social structure (system explanation)

Parts of the Social Structure 

Work together to maintain social order by limiting, guiding, & organizing human thought & behavior (society—>social institutions—> social groups—>statuses) 

Foraging

• 300,000-12,000 years ago

• Hunt & scavenge animals

• Simple social organization

• Simple technology

• Small nomadic bands

• Family= key social institution

• Limited social inequality

Pastoral & Horticultural

• Emerged 10,000-12,000 years ago

• Horticultural— cultivate plants

• Pastoral— herd domesticated animals

• Small villages, semi-nomadic

• Social organization more complex

• Greater status & role differentiation

• Surpluses & social inequality increase

Agrarian 

• Around 5,500 years ago 

• Large-scale farming using draft animals & the plow 

• Populations grows, people settle in communities, giving rise to cities 

• # & complexity of social institutions expands 

• Division of labor, surplus & social inequality grow 

• Males gain power & become dominant, resulting in patriarchy 

• Social stratification emerges, including slave, caste & estate systems 

Industrial

• Mid-1700s

• Advanced sources of energy used to power machinery

• Factories & mass production the norm

• Dramatic expansion of division of labor

• Social structure increases complexity

• Population booms

• Urbanization increases

Post-Industrial

• 1950’s, Post WWll

• Service sector becomes dominant

• Computers become vital & indispensable

• Deindustrialization & deskilling grows

• Globalization increases

• Cultural lag increases

Functional Perspective

• Macrosociological; stability & order

• Society composed of interrelated parts (structures) that work together (functions) to keep balanced & orderly

• Stability maintained bc members share common culture

• Shared culture, work & interdependence bind us together & stabilize society

Conflict Perspective

• Macrosociological; economic relations, power, control are foundation for social order

• Society into groups that compete for social & economic resources

• Social order maintained through domination & control by elite, rather than consensus

• Position in economic order determines experiences & outcomes

Bourgeoisie

• Ruling class who own capital, have power & dominant society

• Structure society to control & benefit from this structure, resulting in inequality

• Work to maintain & defend their position

Proletariat

Working class who don’t own capital, have NO power, dominated & exploited

Interaction Perspective

• Microsociological

• Thought & behavior influenced by definitions & meanings created & maintained through social interaction

• Social construct produced through social interaction & exist within given social context

• Society exists in minds of people, socially constructed, highly subjective, fluid, changing

• Social interaction rooted in statuses we hold; we learn our roles, identify ourselves through statuses & associated roles

• Interactionists focus on symbolic systems & symbols make social life possible; social experience consists of exchange of symbols

Self

• Sense of who we are separate from others

• Originates in social experience

• Defined by interactions with others

Research Process Steps

1. Choose Research Topic

2. Review the literature

3. Formulate hypothesis

—>Independent (X) presumed to cause effect on Dependent (Y)

4. Design Research

5. Gather & analyze data

—>Population (group studied), sample (subset of population)

4. Draw conclusions & share results

Correlation

Relationship between variables

Causality

Idea that one event, behavior, or belief will result in occurrence of another subsequent event, behavior, or belief

Research Methods

• Survey

• Experiments

• Observation (participant & non-participant) (intensive interviewing)

• Existing data (secondary data analysis, content analysis)

Culture

Learned & shared ways of believing & doing within society & includes symbols, languages, norms, beliefs, values & artifacts

Functional Theory on Culture

• Culture as system of beliefs, values & norms, held common by a society, which helps society maintain stability, predictability & smooth operation, thus culture contributes to functioning as a whole

In Durkheim’s theory of solidarity…

• culture (or the collective consciousness) is seen as key element in formation of social solidarity (social cohesion)

Conflict Theory on Culture

• View culture as inherently unequal, based on power differentials related to issues like class, race, & age

• Seen as reinforcing privilege for certain groups bc inequalities exist within a culture’s value system

• Thus, society’s cultural values, beliefs & norms benefit some and hurt some

• EX— some groups allowed to practice social norms, while others are not

Interaction Theory on Culture

• See culture as being created & maintained through interaction between people in society & based on how individuals interpret each other’s actions

• See human interactions as continuous process of obtaining meaning from both objects in environment & actions of others

• Every object & action has symbolic meaning & language serves as means for people to represent & communicate their interpretations of these meanings to others

• Those believing symbolic interactionism—perceive culture as highly dynamic & fluid, as it depends on how meaning is interpreted & how individuals interact when conveying these messages

Beliefs

Ideas or convictions that people hold to be true, & are typically rooted in science, mythology, folklore, or religion

Values

Judgements of what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, beautiful or ugly, & are critical for transmitting & teaching beliefs of culture

Norms

Standards & expectations for behaving; largely shaped by values of a society

Informal Norms or Folkways

Standard of behavior considered less important but still influence how we behave

Formal Norms or Mores

Standard of behavior most important in any society includes both mores & laws

• Mores derive from the moral code & Laws derive from legal code

Innovation

• Process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture, including discoveries & inventions

• Results in cultural change

Discoveries

• Occurs when something completely new is observed or found

• Source of cultural change

Inventions

• Something new is created from things that already exist

• Source of cultural change

Cultural Diffusion

• Spread of aspects of culture from one society to another

• Source of cultural change

Cultural Lag

• Result of society changing quickly

• Different parts of culture change at different paces or different groups in society adapt more slowly to changes

Subculture

Group that shares central values & beliefs of larger culture but still retain certain values, beliefs & norms distinct from larger culture

Counterculture

Group whose values & beliefs directly oppose those of the larger culture & even reject it

Dominant Culture

Group whose values, beliefs, language & norms are imposed on all members of society, regardless if cultural traits contradict culture of other members of society

Cultural Shock

Uncomfortable or bewildering feeling we might have when immersed in a new culture

Ethnocentrism

Judge other cultures based upon our own cultural standards, resulting in negative judgement of cultural differences

Cultural Relativism

• Not judge any culture as superior or inferior to another culture

• All cultures seen as having pros & cons

Socialization

Process through which we learn our culture & the role expectations of our statuses

Isolated Children Research

Shows importance of social interaction & socialization in process of development

Looking-Glass Self Theory

Cooley self concept in steps:

• We imagine how we appear to those around us

• We interpret how others react to us & draw conclusions about how they evaluate us

• We develop self-concept based on our interpretations

• We continue to do this throughout our lives

Taking Role of the Other Theory

Mead claimed through role play, we develop sense of self, come to understanding of place in society & understand & anticipate how others feel & think

Self develops through 3 stages

1. Imitation

2. Play

3. Game

Dramaturgical Theory

Erving Goffman (1922-1982)

• Construct & maintain self through interactions with others

• Identity constantly remade as we interact

• Like actors on a stage, all social encounters represent attempts to carry out successful performances

Agents of Socialization

• People & groups that teach us our culture & influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes & behaviors

• Prepare us to take place in our society

• Family, peers, schools, media, etc

Resocialization

Process of discarding old attributes of culture & adopting new attributes

• Takes place as part of significant life transition

Total Institutions

Organizations cut off from the rest of society where individuals are strictly controlled

Conversion

Far-reaching change in religious or political identity

Brainwashing

Extreme conversion process in which beliefs are changed against someone’s will

Radicalization

Development of an extremist ideology which may or may not result in extreme behavior

Social Structure

• Social patterns through which society is organized

• Parts work together to maintain social order by limiting, guiding & organizing human thought & behavior

• Plays important role in influencing individual opportunities & outcomes

Social Institutions

Organized means developed by societies to meet their basic needs

Social Groups

2 or more people who interact regularly, share goals & norms & have a sense of belonging together

Status

Social status is position an individual occupies or a title one holds

Role

Behaviors, obligations, & privileges attached to a status, which help us interact with a certain amount of predictability

Ascribed Status

Positions we are born with, assigned to &/or over which we have little control

Achieved Status

Positions we achieve or earn & are within our power to change

Role Conflict

When the role each of us play, due to many statuses we occupy, conflict with each other

Role Strain

When expectations (roles) of one status causes strain in an effort to meet all the expectations

Social Aggregate

Collections of people who are in the same place at the same time but otherwise do not interact, except superficial ways

Social Categories

Collections of people who have at least one attribute in common but otherwise do not interact

Primary Groups

Small, long lasting groups characterized by intimate & extensive face-to-face association & cooperation

• social & emotional needs

Secondary Groups

Larger, more anonymous, formal & impersonal groups based on some interest or activity

• Serve instrumental, task-oriented needs

Reference Group

Groups we use as standards for evaluating ourselves

In- & -Out Groups

Groups we feel pride & sense of loyalty towards (in)

Groups we do not belong to & are antagonistic towards (out)

Asch Research Results

People are highly susceptible to conforming to a group’s opinion, even when they know the group’s answer is incorrect

Milgram Research Conclusions

• Studied obedience to authority

• 65% of subjects administered lethal voltage shock (they thought) to another human to obey authority

Diffusion of Responsibility or Bystander Effect

Observable pattern where people are less likely to come to aid someone if they think others will

Groupthink

Process where people go along with desires & views of a group against their better judgment

• collective decisions

• made under pressure, without completely thinking

Social Control

Ways in which a society tries to prevent & sanction deviant behavior & other attempts at compelling conformity

Peer Pressure

• Overt pressure & subtle influences exerted in social groups to go along with the groups decision, resulting in conformity

• Mechanism of social control

Obedience to Authority

• Where people accept instructions from authority figures & conform to their expectations

• Mechanism of social control

Socialization as Mechanism of Social Control

Process by which we are taught conform to cultural standards of our society, enforced through social sanctions

Social Sanctions

Rewards & punishments used to enforce conformity to cultural expectations

Informal Social Control

Actions taken to control behaviors that violate informal norms, such as anger, disgust, & ridicule

Formal Social Control

Actions taken to control behaviors that violate formal norms (mores & laws)

Deviance

Behavior that violates social norms & typically arouses negative social reactions

Relativity of Deviance

• Whether a behavior is considered deviant depends on circumstances in which behavior occurs, not on behavior itself

• Deviance is relative to place & time

Deviance Theory—Durkheim’s Theory—Functional Perspective

• Purpose by clarifying norms, strengthening social bonds among people reacting to deviance

• Can lead to positive social change

Deviance Theory—Social Ecology Theory—Functional Perspective

• Certain social & physical characteristics of neighborhoods with higher rates of deviance contribute

• Characteristics include dysfunctional social institutions, poverty, dilapidation, population density, population turnover

Deviance Theory—Structural Strain Theory—Functional Perspective

• Results from gap between cultural emphasis on economic success & inability to achieve such success through legitimate means

Deviance Theory—Differential Justice Theory—Conflict Perspective

• People with power use legal system to secure position at top & keep powerless at bottom

• Poor & minorities bc of lower status to be arrested, convicted & imprisoned

Deviance Theory—Feminist Theory—Conflict Perspective

Gender inequality, sexism & antiquated views about relationships between sexes underlie sexual assault, rape, intimate partner violence & other crimes against women

Deviance Theory—Differential Association Theory—Interaction Perspective

• Criminal behavior learned by interacting with close friends & family who teach how to commit crimes & about values, motives & rationalizations to justify breaking the law

Deviance Theory—Social Control Theory—Interaction Perspective

Results from weak bonds to conventional social institutions & groups, as well as lack of internalization of expected cultural norms

Deviance Theory—Labeling Theory—Interaction Perspective

Results from being labeled deviant

Conventional Crime

Violent & property offenses such as murder, rape, robbery, assault, arson, car theft

White-Collar Crimes

Financially motivated crime committed as part of one’s occupation

• Fraud, falsification, insider trading, counterfeiting, tax evasion, embezzlement

Victimless Crimes

Illegal behavior people may willingly engage & where there are no unwilling victims such as drug use, gambling, sex work

Get-Tough Approach

System in which harsher law enforcement policies & tactics are employed

Mass Incarceration

Extremely high rate of incarceration markedly above historical & comparative rates of imprisonment

Social Stratification

When social inequality becomes embedded within social structure

• Results in structured inequalities between groups layered in a hierarchy

Estate System Stratification

• In Agrarian societies, highly unequal

• Closed system—ascribed placement

• Primarily supported through law & religious ideology

Caste System of Stratification

• Primarily Agrarian societies, highly unequal, closed systems

• Ranking rigidly enforced, statuses ascribed

• Religious ideology & laws legitimize these systems

Slave System of Stratification

• Emerged 10,000 years ago, found in Agrarian societies

• Ownership of humans

• Some open & some closed

• Status results from war, crime, debt, inheritance

• Inequality varies

• Legitimized through legal & ideological systems

Social Class System of Stratification

• Industrial & post-industrial societies

• Open system, status can be ascribed or achieved

• Inequality varies

• Legitimized through ideology of equal opportunity

Functional Theory on Social Stratification

• In order for economy to function, economic positions must be filled

• Some positions more important than others, top position filled by qualified people

• Top positions must offer greater rewards to motivate people to sacrifice to achieve these positions