hist 1200 exam 1 ID terms mizzou

New Immigration

New Immigration refers to the wave of immigrants who arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1914, primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe. Unlike earlier immigrants, who mainly came from Northern and Western Europe, this new group included many Catholics, Jews, and Eastern Orthodox Christians from countries such as Italy, Poland, and Russia. These immigrants were drawn to America by economic opportunities and industrial jobs while also fleeing poverty, political persecution, and religious discrimination in their home countries. The arrival of New Immigrants led to tensions with native-born Americans, who viewed them as culturally and politically different. This period saw the rise of anti-immigrant sentiment, including the emergence of nativist organizations and restrictive immigration laws. New Immigration played a crucial role in shaping American cities, labor movements, and cultural diversity, challenging the traditional narrative of the U.S. as a "melting pot" and instead revealing the complexities of assimilation and discrimination in American society.

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Chinese Exclusion Act

The Chinese Exclusion Act was a federal law passed in 1882 that prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers to the United States. It was the first significant piece of legislation in American history to explicitly restrict immigration based on nationality. The act emerged in response to growing anti-Chinese sentiment, particularly in the western United States, where Chinese immigrants were blamed for taking jobs and driving down wages. This hostility was fueled by economic downturns and racial prejudice, leading to widespread discrimination and violence against Chinese communities. The act was initially intended to last for ten years but was extended and later made permanent until its repeal in 1943. The Chinese Exclusion Act is historically significant because it set a precedent for racially discriminatory immigration policies in the United States and contributed to the legal framework of exclusion that shaped future immigration laws. It also profoundly impacted Chinese American communities, restricting their ability to grow and forcing many into segregated enclaves such as San Francisco's Chinatown. More broadly, the act reveals the deep contradictions in American ideals of liberty and opportunity, highlighting the exclusionary practices that shaped the nation's development.

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Push Factors

Push factors refer to the conditions in a person's home country that drive them to emigrate. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, millions of people left Europe, Asia, and other regions due to push factors such as poverty, war, political oppression, religious persecution, and natural disasters. For example, many Irish immigrants fled to the United States due to the Great Famine, while Jews from Eastern Europe escaped violent pogroms. Economic hardship caused by industrialization and land shortages also played a major role in motivating migration. Understanding push factors is historically significant because they help explain the massive global migration patterns of this era and the challenges immigrants faced upon arrival. These factors also shaped American attitudes toward immigration, as many native-born citizens viewed newcomers as desperate and burdensome, fueling nativist sentiment and restrictive immigration policies.

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Pull Factors

Pull factors are the conditions in a destination country that attract immigrants. In the case of the United States during the 19th and early 20th centuries, pull factors included economic opportunities, industrial jobs, land availability, and the promise of political and religious freedom. The U.S. was perceived as a land of opportunity where people could escape poverty and oppression, leading millions to seek a better life in cities like New York, Chicago, and San Francisco. The Homestead Act of 1862 also encouraged immigration by offering land to settlers willing to move west. Pull factors played a critical role in shaping American demographics, labor markets, and urban development. However, they also led to tensions as rapid immigration created competition for jobs, housing shortages, and cultural clashes, influencing restrictive policies such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and later the Immigration Act of 1924.

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Knights of Labor

The Knights of Labor was one of the first major national labor unions in the United States, founded in 1869 by Uriah Stephens and later led by Terence Powderly. The organization sought to unite workers across industries, including skilled and unskilled laborers, women, and African Americans, in an effort to improve wages, reduce working hours, and advocate for better working conditions. The Knights of Labor gained prominence in the 1880s and played a key role in labor strikes and protests, such as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. However, their influence declined after being associated with the violent Haymarket Riot of 1886, which turned public opinion against labor activism. The Knights of Labor were historically significant because they laid the groundwork for future labor movements, highlighting the struggle for workers' rights in the face of industrial capitalism and corporate power. Their efforts paved the way for later organizations like the American Federation of Labor, which adopted a more pragmatic approach to labor organizing.

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American Federation of Labor (AFL)

The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was a national labor union founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers. Unlike the Knights of Labor, which sought to unite all workers, the AFL focused on organizing skilled workers into specific trade unions, advocating for higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions. The AFL's leadership believed in "pure and simple unionism," meaning they prioritized economic gains over political activism. The AFL played a crucial role in labor struggles of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including strikes and negotiations that helped establish the eight-hour workday. The AFL's emphasis on craft unionism made it one of the most enduring labor organizations in U.S. history, influencing later labor policies and shaping the modern labor movement.

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People's Party (Populist Party)

The People's Party, also known as the Populist Party, was a political movement formed in the early 1890s by farmers and laborers who felt marginalized by industrial capitalism and the two-party system. The party emerged in response to economic hardships faced by rural Americans, such as declining crop prices, high railroad fees, and debt burdens. The Populists advocated for policies such as the free coinage of silver (to create inflation and help farmers), government regulation of railroads, direct election of senators, and a progressive income tax. The party gained significant support in the 1892 and 1896 elections, but after merging with the Democratic Party to support William Jennings Bryan, it declined in influence. The People's Party was historically significant because it highlighted the economic struggles of rural Americans and laid the groundwork for progressive reforms in the early 20th century.

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Haymarket Riot (1886)

The Haymarket Riot was a violent confrontation between labor protestors and police that took place on May 4, 1886, in Chicago's Haymarket Square. It began as a peaceful rally supporting the eight-hour workday, but tensions escalated when an unknown individual threw a bomb at the police, killing several officers and civilians. The authorities responded by arresting and executing several anarchists, despite little evidence connecting them to the bombing. The riot led to increased fear of radical labor movements and was used to justify crackdowns on unions and immigrant workers. The event significantly weakened the Knights of Labor, which was unfairly blamed for the violence. The Haymarket Riot is historically significant because it marked a turning point in labor relations, reinforcing government and business opposition to labor activism while also inspiring future generations of labor organizers.

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Pullman Strike (1894)

The Pullman Strike was a nationwide railroad strike that took place in 1894, organized by the American Railway Union (ARU) and led by Eugene V. Debs. It began when workers at the Pullman Company, which manufactured luxury railroad cars, went on strike to protest wage cuts and high rents in company-owned housing. The strike quickly escalated, shutting down rail traffic across the country. In response, President Grover Cleveland sent federal troops to break the strike, leading to violent clashes that resulted in several deaths. The Pullman Strike is historically significant because it demonstrated the growing power of labor unions and the willingness of the federal government to side with big business over workers. The event also led to the establishment of Labor Day as a national holiday in an attempt to ease tensions between labor and government.

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Presidential Reconstruction (1865-1867)

Presidential Reconstruction refers to the period immediately following the Civil War when Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson implemented lenient policies to bring the Southern states back into the Union. Lincoln's plan, known as the Ten Percent Plan, allowed Southern states to rejoin once 10% of their voters swore loyalty to the Union. After Lincoln's assassination, Johnson continued this approach, offering pardons to former Confederates and allowing Southern states to form new governments with few restrictions. However, many Southern states enacted Black Codes to restrict the rights of freed African Americans, leading to outrage among Radical Republicans in Congress. The failure of Presidential Reconstruction to protect the rights of freedmen led to the rise of Congressional Reconstruction, which imposed stricter conditions on the South. This period is historically significant because it shaped the long-term struggle for racial equality in the United States, revealing deep divisions over how to rebuild the nation after the Civil War.

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Congressional Reconstruction (1867-1877)

Congressional Reconstruction was the period after the Civil War in which Radical Republicans in Congress took control of Reconstruction policies, enacting measures to protect the rights of freed African Americans. In contrast to the lenient approach of Presidential Reconstruction, Congressional Reconstruction imposed military rule over the South and required states to ratify the 14th and 15th Amendments, which granted citizenship and voting rights to African Americans. The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 divided the South into military districts, ensuring that new governments were formed with the participation of Black citizens. However, Congressional Reconstruction faced fierce resistance from white Southerners, leading to the rise of groups like the Ku Klux Klan. This period is historically significant because it marked an early attempt at racial equality in the United States, though its gains were largely undone by the Compromise of 1877 and the subsequent rise of Jim Crow laws.

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Black Codes

Black Codes were laws passed by Southern states after the Civil War to restrict the rights and freedoms of African Americans. These laws aimed to maintain a labor force similar to slavery by limiting Black people's ability to own land, move freely, or seek employment outside of plantation labor. Some states also passed vagrancy laws that allowed authorities to arrest unemployed Black individuals and force them into labor contracts. The Black Codes outraged Northern Republicans, leading to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the 14th Amendment to guarantee equal rights for African Americans. The Black Codes are historically significant because they illustrate the South's resistance to racial equality and the challenges of Reconstruction. They also foreshadowed the later Jim Crow laws that institutionalized racial segregation in the South.

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Compromise of 1877

The Compromise of 1877 was an informal agreement that resolved the disputed presidential election of 1876 between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. In exchange for conceding the presidency to Hayes, Southern Democrats demanded the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction. This compromise allowed white Southern leaders to regain political control and enact laws that disenfranchised African Americans. The Compromise of 1877 is historically significant because it marked the end of federal efforts to protect Black civil rights, leading to nearly a century of racial segregation under Jim Crow laws. It also demonstrated the power of backroom political deals in shaping American history.

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Sharecropping

Sharecropping was a labor system that emerged in the South after the Civil War, in which freed African Americans and poor white farmers worked land owned by wealthy landlords in exchange for a share of the crops. While it was initially seen as a way for formerly enslaved people to achieve economic independence, in practice, sharecropping often trapped workers in a cycle of debt and poverty due to high interest rates and exploitative contracts. Landowners controlled access to supplies and markets, making it nearly impossible for sharecroppers to gain financial stability. Sharecropping is historically significant because it replaced slavery as the dominant labor system in the South, reinforcing racial and economic inequality. It also contributed to the Great Migration, as many African Americans sought better opportunities in the North.

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Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a white supremacist organization founded in 1865 in Tennessee by former Confederate soldiers. Initially formed as a social club, it quickly evolved into a violent group that used terror, intimidation, and murder to suppress African Americans and their allies during Reconstruction. The Klan aimed to restore white dominance by attacking Black voters, Republican politicians, and supporters of racial equality. The federal government attempted to suppress the Klan through the Enforcement Acts of 1870-1871, but the organization resurfaced in later decades, particularly in the 1910s and 1920s, promoting nativism and anti-Catholic sentiment. The KKK is historically significant because it played a major role in the failure of Reconstruction by undermining Black political participation and contributing to the establishment of Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation in the South.

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Jim Crow Laws

Jim Crow laws were a series of state and local laws enacted in the South after the end of Reconstruction that institutionalized racial segregation and disenfranchisement of African Americans. Named after a racist minstrel character, these laws mandated separate public facilities, schools, transportation, and housing for Black and white citizens. The Supreme Court's ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld these laws under the doctrine of "separate but equal," reinforcing systemic discrimination. Jim Crow laws remained in place until the civil rights movement of the mid-20th century. These laws are historically significant because they legally codified racial inequality, creating a racially stratified society that would persist for nearly a century and necessitate future civil rights activism.

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Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

The Dawes Severalty Act was a federal law passed in 1887 that aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by dividing communal tribal lands into individual plots. Under this act, Native American families were granted 160 acres of land, while the remaining tribal lands were sold to white settlers. The Dawes Act was intended to encourage Native Americans to adopt private land ownership and farming, but in practice, it led to the loss of millions of acres of tribal land and severely disrupted Native cultures. Many Native Americans were unable to sustain themselves on their allotted lands, leading to poverty and displacement. The Dawes Act is historically significant because it marked a shift in U.S. policy from recognizing tribal sovereignty to forced assimilation, ultimately weakening Native American communities and contributing to the erosion of their land and traditions.

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Union Pacific Railroad

The Union Pacific Railroad was one of the two railroads that built the first transcontinental railroad in the United States, connecting Omaha, Nebraska, to Promontory Point, Utah, where it met the Central Pacific Railroad in 1869. Funded by government land grants and subsidies under the Pacific Railway Act of 1862, the Union Pacific employed many Civil War veterans and Irish immigrants, who faced dangerous working conditions. The completion of the transcontinental railroad revolutionized transportation and commerce, allowing goods, people, and information to travel across the country faster than ever before. The Union Pacific is historically significant because it contributed to westward expansion, the decline of Native American autonomy, and the rise of the U.S. as an industrial powerhouse.

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Central Pacific Railroad

The Central Pacific Railroad was the western half of the transcontinental railroad, built from Sacramento, California, to meet the Union Pacific Railroad in Utah in 1869. Constructed largely by Chinese immigrant laborers, who faced extreme discrimination and dangerous working conditions, the Central Pacific had to overcome the challenging terrain of the Sierra Nevada mountains. Like the Union Pacific, it was funded by government land grants and loans. The Central Pacific is historically significant because it played a crucial role in uniting the country through rail travel, stimulating economic growth, and contributing to the displacement of Native American tribes along the route.

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Homestead Act (1862)

The Homestead Act was a federal law signed by President Abraham Lincoln in 1862 that provided 160 acres of public land to settlers who agreed to live on and cultivate the land for five years. The act encouraged westward expansion and allowed thousands of families, including freed African Americans and European immigrants, to acquire land. However, much of the best land was taken by speculators or railroad companies, and many homesteaders struggled with harsh conditions, drought, and conflicts with Native Americans. The Homestead Act is historically significant because it accelerated the settlement of the western frontier, helped shape American agricultural development, and contributed to conflicts over land ownership and Native American displacement.

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Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is a theory that emerged in the late 19th century, applying Charles Darwin's ideas of natural selection to human society. Advocates, such as Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner, argued that competition and survival of the fittest justified economic inequality, laissez-faire capitalism, and imperialism. This ideology was used to defend the dominance of big businesses, the exploitation of workers, and racial hierarchies. It also influenced policies that opposed government intervention in the economy and social welfare programs. Social Darwinism is historically significant because it shaped economic and political attitudes in the Gilded Age, justifying the wealth gap and reinforcing racial and class divisions in American society.

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Committee on Public Information (CPI)

The Committee on Public Information (CPI) was a government agency created in 1917 during World War I to promote American support for the war effort. Led by George Creel, the CPI used propaganda, including posters, films, speeches, and newspapers, to encourage patriotism and demonize enemy nations, particularly Germany. The CPI also organized the "Four-Minute Men," volunteers who delivered pro-war speeches in public places. However, the agency also contributed to anti-German hysteria and censorship of dissenting voices. The CPI is historically significant because it marked the first large-scale government effort to influence public opinion through mass media, setting a precedent for future wartime propaganda and shaping public perceptions of free speech and national unity.

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Spanish-American War (1898)

The Spanish-American War was a conflict between the United States and Spain in 1898, sparked by American support for Cuban independence and the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor. Fueled by yellow journalism and public outrage, the war led to a swift U.S. victory, resulting in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which granted the U.S. control over former Spanish colonies, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The war marked the U.S.'s emergence as a global imperial power and led to debates over American expansionism. The Spanish-American War is historically significant because it signaled the beginning of U.S. interventionism in global affairs and raised ethical questions about imperialism and colonial rule.

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Philippine Insurrection (1899-1902)

The Philippine Insurrection, also known as the Philippine-American War, was a conflict between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries who opposed U.S. annexation following the Spanish-American War. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, Filipino forces initially fought for independence against Spain but later resisted American occupation. The war was marked by brutal guerrilla warfare, civilian casualties, and U.S. military suppression. The conflict ended in 1902 with a U.S. victory, but resistance continued for years. The Philippine Insurrection is historically significant because it exposed the contradictions of American imperialism—justifying intervention in the name of democracy while denying self-rule to the Philippines—and shaped U.S. colonial policy in the Pacific.

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Panama Canal (1904-1914)

The Panama Canal is an artificial waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, constructed by the United States from 1904 to 1914. Initially attempted by the French but abandoned due to engineering challenges and disease, the U.S. gained control of the canal zone after supporting Panamanian independence from Colombia in 1903. The canal revolutionized global trade by significantly reducing travel time for ships. It also symbolized American engineering prowess and expanding global influence. The Panama Canal is historically significant because it cemented U.S. dominance in Latin America, fueled tensions over American interventionism, and demonstrated the power of modern infrastructure in shaping global commerce.

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Lusitania (1915)

The Lusitania was a British ocean liner torpedoed by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915, during World War I. The attack killed 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, provoking outrage in the United States. Although Germany argued the ship was carrying war supplies, the incident fueled anti-German sentiment and increased calls for U.S. involvement in the war. While the U.S. remained neutral for two more years, the sinking of the Lusitania played a crucial role in shifting public opinion toward intervention. The event is historically significant because it highlighted the dangers of unrestricted submarine warfare and contributed to the U.S. entry into World War I in 1917.

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Zimmerman Telegram (1917)

The Zimmerman Telegram was a secret diplomatic message sent by Germany to Mexico in January 1917, proposing an alliance in the event of U.S. entry into World War I. In exchange, Germany promised to help Mexico reclaim lost territories in Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. The British intercepted and decoded the message, passing it to the U.S., where it sparked national outrage. The Zimmerman Telegram is historically significant because it directly contributed to the U.S. declaration of war against Germany in April 1917, marking a turning point in World War I.

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Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The Treaty of Versailles was the peace treaty that officially ended World War I, signed on June 28, 1919. The treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including significant territorial losses, military restrictions, and heavy reparations payments. It also established the League of Nations, an international organization aimed at preventing future conflicts. However, the treaty's punitive measures fueled German resentment, contributing to the rise of Adolf Hitler and World War II. The Treaty of Versailles is historically significant because it reshaped European borders, set the stage for future global conflicts, and demonstrated the challenges of enforcing international peace agreements.

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Naval Reserve Act (1916)

The Naval Reserve Act was a U.S. law passed in 1916 to expand and modernize the Navy in preparation for potential involvement in World War I. It created the U.S. Naval Reserve Force, allowing civilians to receive military training and be called to active duty in wartime. The act was part of a broader military buildup under President Woodrow Wilson, reflecting growing concerns over global instability. The Naval Reserve Act is historically significant because it helped prepare the U.S. for war, demonstrating the shift toward military readiness and American interventionism in world affairs.

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Margaret Sanger (1879-1966)

Margaret Sanger was an American nurse and activist who led the birth control movement in the early 20th century. She founded the first birth control clinic in 1916 and later established the organization that became Planned Parenthood. Sanger advocated for women's reproductive rights, challenging laws that restricted contraception. However, her support for eugenics remains controversial. Sanger is historically significant because she played a crucial role in advancing reproductive health, paving the way for modern contraceptive access and women's rights.

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Eighteenth Amendment (1919)

The Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1919, prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages, marking the beginning of Prohibition. The amendment was driven by temperance movements, which argued that alcohol led to crime, poverty, and social decay. However, Prohibition led to a rise in organized crime and illegal speakeasies. It was ultimately repealed by the Twenty-First Amendment in 1933. The Eighteenth Amendment is historically significant because it reflected moral and social reform movements of the Progressive Era and demonstrated the challenges of legislating personal behavior.

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Red Scare (1919-1920)

The Red Scare was a period of intense fear of communism and radical leftist movements in the United States following World War I and the Russian Revolution. Fueled by labor strikes, anarchist bombings, and anti-immigrant sentiment, the government responded with widespread raids, deportations, and suppression of civil liberties, known as the Palmer Raids. The Red Scare is historically significant because it set a precedent for later anti-communist crackdowns, including McCarthyism in the 1950s, and reflected broader anxieties about political and social change.

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Great African American Migration (1910-1970)

The Great African American Migration was a mass movement of over six million African Americans from the rural South to urban centers in the North and West between 1910 and 1970. Driven by racial violence, segregation, and limited economic opportunities in the South, Black Americans sought better jobs and social freedoms in cities like Chicago, Detroit, and New York. This migration reshaped American demographics, contributing to the growth of Black urban communities and cultural movements like the Harlem Renaissance. The Great Migration is historically significant because it transformed American society, influencing racial dynamics, politics, and culture throughout the 20th century.

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Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s)

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement centered in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s and 1930s. It was marked by a flourishing of Black literature, music, art, and intellectual thought, with figures like Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Duke Ellington gaining prominence. The movement celebrated African American identity and challenged racial stereotypes, influencing future civil rights activism. The Harlem Renaissance is historically significant because it reshaped perceptions of Black culture in America and laid the foundation for later social and political movements advocating for racial equality.

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Jacob Riis (1849-1914)

Jacob Riis was a Danish-American journalist and social reformer best known for his 1890 book How the Other Half Lives, which exposed the harsh living conditions of immigrants in New York City's tenements. Using photography and investigative reporting, Riis brought attention to poverty, housing reform, and urban inequality. His work influenced Progressive Era reforms and the creation of housing regulations. Riis is historically significant because he pioneered photojournalism and helped spur efforts to improve living conditions for the urban poor.

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Sitting Bull (1831-1890)

Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux leader who played a central role in resisting U.S. expansion into Native lands. He is best known for leading the Sioux to victory at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876, where General Custer's forces were defeated. Sitting Bull later surrendered to U.S. authorities and toured with Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show before being killed during an arrest attempt in 1890. He is historically significant because he symbolized Native American resistance to U.S. expansion and the struggles of indigenous peoples during westward expansion.

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Henry Pratt (1837-1904)

Henry Pratt was a U.S. Army officer and educational reformer best known for founding the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in 1879. He promoted the idea of assimilating Native American children into Euro-American culture through education, famously advocating the policy to "Kill the Indian, and save the man." The school sought to erase Indigenous identities by forcing students to adopt English, Christianity, and Western customs. Pratt is historically significant because his policies reflected the broader U.S. efforts to forcibly assimilate Native Americans, a legacy that contributed to the loss of Indigenous languages and cultural practices.

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Terence Powderly (1849-1924)

Terence Powderly was an American labor leader and politician who served as the head of the Knights of Labor from 1879 to 1893. Under his leadership, the organization expanded rapidly, advocating for an eight-hour workday, equal pay for women, and restrictions on child labor. Powderly opposed strikes as a means of achieving labor goals, preferring political action. The Knights of Labor declined after the Haymarket Riot of 1886, but Powderly's leadership helped shape the early labor movement. He is historically significant for his contributions to the push for workers' rights and the transition from craft unions to industrial unions in the U.S.

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Samuel Gompers (1850-1924)

Samuel Gompers was a British-born American labor leader who founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1886 and served as its president for nearly four decades. Unlike the Knights of Labor, the AFL focused on skilled workers and emphasized collective bargaining and practical economic gains over political activism. Gompers championed higher wages, shorter work hours, and better working conditions but largely excluded women and unskilled laborers. He is historically significant because he helped institutionalize labor unions in the U.S., shaping labor policies that still influence workers' rights today.

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Tammany Hall (1789-20th century)

Tammany Hall was a powerful Democratic political machine that dominated New York City politics for much of the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was known for its ability to mobilize immigrant voters, particularly Irish Americans, and for engaging in widespread political corruption and patronage. Leaders like William "Boss" Tweed used Tammany Hall to control city government and public contracts. Despite its corruption, it provided social services and jobs to struggling immigrants. Tammany Hall is historically significant because it exemplified the influence of political machines in American urban politics and the tensions between corruption and social welfare.

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Ida Tarbell (1857-1944)

Ida Tarbell was an American journalist and one of the leading muckrakers of the Progressive Era. She is best known for her 1904 book The History of the Standard Oil Company, which exposed the monopolistic practices of John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil. Her investigative journalism played a major role in the government's decision to break up Standard Oil under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1911. Tarbell is historically significant because her work set a precedent for investigative journalism and contributed to Progressive Era reforms aimed at regulating big business.

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John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937)

John D. Rockefeller was an American industrialist and philanthropist who founded Standard Oil in 1870. Through aggressive business tactics, including horizontal and vertical integration, he built Standard Oil into a near-monopoly over the oil industry. In 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil violated antitrust laws and ordered its breakup. Despite his ruthless business practices, Rockefeller donated vast sums to education, medical research, and public health initiatives. He is historically significant because he exemplified both the power of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age and the rise of corporate regulation.

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Randolph Bourne (1886-1918)

Randolph Bourne was an American intellectual and social critic known for his opposition to World War I and his advocacy for cultural pluralism. In his famous essay "Trans-National America" (1916), he rejected the idea of assimilation and instead argued that the U.S. should embrace its diverse immigrant populations. He was also a vocal critic of wartime nationalism and government propaganda. Bourne is historically significant because his ideas on multiculturalism influenced later discussions on immigration, national identity, and the role of dissent in democracy.

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George Creel (1876-1953)

George Creel was an American journalist and head of the Committee on Public Information (CPI), the government propaganda agency created during World War I. Under his leadership, the CPI used posters, films, speeches, and newspapers to generate public support for the war and promote nationalism. The agency also encouraged censorship and suppressed dissent. Creel is historically significant because his work demonstrated the power of mass media in shaping public opinion and set a precedent for government propaganda efforts in future conflicts.

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William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925)

William Jennings Bryan was an American politician, orator, and three-time Democratic presidential candidate (1896, 1900, 1908). He was a leading figure in the Populist movement and an advocate for free silver, opposing the gold standard as a way to help farmers and the working class. Later, as Secretary of State under Woodrow Wilson, he promoted diplomacy over military intervention. Bryan is also known for his role in the Scopes Trial (1925), where he argued against the teaching of evolution. He is historically significant because he represented the struggle between rural traditionalism and urban modernism in early 20th-century America.