psych test 4

attribution theory

we can attribute someone's behavior to their stable traits (dispositional/internal) or their situations (situational/external)

fundamental attribution error

when analyzing behaviors, the tendency to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personality traits

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent
ex: if you are feeling insecure, act confident and you will start viewing yourself as confident

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness (mostly for unmotivated audience)

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts (more logical and intelligent audience)

norms

rules for accepted and expected behavior

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
-complying/doing what's expected

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
-doing something because you believe and accept it
-persuaded

obedience to authority

a tendency to comply with instructions from an authority

Miligram's obedience study

obedience was highest when:
-person was nearby and legitimate authority figure
-research was supported by prestigious institution
-victim was depersonalized or at a distance
-no role models for defiance

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks (yerkes-dodson)

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
ex: ku klux klan

group polarization

group discussions with like-minded others strengthen members' prevailing beliefs and attitudes

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

individual power

power of the individual and the power of the situation interact.a small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway the majority.

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration creates anger, which can generate aggression

social scripts

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

genetic influence of aggression

genetic Y chromosome marker, alcohol

neural influences of aggression

aggression is more likely to occur with frontal lobe damage

biochemical influences of aggression

Testosterone linked with irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration; alcohol effect

psychology of attraction

proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity

mere exposure effect

the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

two-factor theory of emotion

emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal and cognitive appraisal

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

socialization norm

social expectation that prescribes how we should behave

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

social traps

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecies

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

personality

our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Frued's psychoanalytic theory

childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality

psychodynamic theories

human behavior is the dynamic interaction between unconscious and conscious minds

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing (Freud used this)

id, ego, superego

Frued's personality structure

id

the unconscious portion of personality that contains basic impulses and urges; survive, reproduce, aggress; operates on the pleasure principle, seeks immediate gratification

ego

the conscious, "executive" part of personality; operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's impulses to bring long-term pleasure; contains perceptions, thoughts, judgements, and memories

superego

the partly conscious part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations; strives for perfection

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

oral

0-18 months, pleasure centers on the mouth; sucking, biting, cfhewing

anal

18-36 months, pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

phallic

3-6 years, pleasure zone of the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings.

latency

6 years-puberty, dormant sexual feelings

genital

puberty on, maturation of sexual interactions

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

fixate

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories; underlies all defense mechanisms

regression

retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
ex: boy reverts back to oral comfort of thumb sucking on the first day of school

reaction formation

switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites
ex: someone's thats angry, acting overly happy

projection

disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
ex: liar thinking everyone else is lying

rationalization

offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions
ex: alcoholic saying their just a social drinker

displacement

shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
ex: girl kicks a dog after being put in time out

denial

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
ex: denying evidence of someone

collective unconscious

Jung's theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture's most basic elements

terror management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

projective test

tests ask test-takers to respond to an ambiguous image by describing it or telling a story about it

humanistic theory

view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

trait theory

A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions; uses personality inventories

person-centered perspective

people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally; characteristics of a growth-promoting environment include genuineness, acceptance, and empathy

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

low

brain-activity scans of extraverts indicate that they seek stimulation because normal brain arousal is relatively _____

introverts

_______ seek low levels of stimulation from their environment

extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability

two personality dimensions

big five factors

five factors that describe a personality; openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context. emphasizes the interaction of people with their environment

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment; different people choose different environments and personalities shape how people interpret and react to events

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably; people accept more responsibility for good deeds rather than bad

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

defensive self-esteem

fragile; focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening

secure self-esteem

less fragile, less contingent on external evaluations, and more likely to achieve a greater quality of life

psychological disorder

disturbance in a person's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior

medical model

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.

DSM-5

describes disorders and estimates their occurrence

phobias; major depressive disorder

the symptoms of _______ appear around age 10, ___________ tends to appear around age 25.

anxiety disorders

distressing, persistent anxiety or dysfunctional anxiety-reducing behaviors

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder that consists of sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror