we can attribute someone's behavior to their stable traits (dispositional/internal) or their situations (situational/external)
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fundamental attribution error
when analyzing behaviors, the tendency to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personality traits
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attitudes
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
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foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
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cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent ex: if you are feeling insecure, act confident and you will start viewing yourself as confident
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peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness (mostly for unmotivated audience)
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central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts (more logical and intelligent audience)
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norms
rules for accepted and expected behavior
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conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
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normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval -complying/doing what's expected
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informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality -doing something because you believe and accept it -persuaded
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obedience to authority
a tendency to comply with instructions from an authority
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Miligram's obedience study
obedience was highest when: -person was nearby and legitimate authority figure -research was supported by prestigious institution -victim was depersonalized or at a distance -no role models for defiance
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social facilitation
in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks (yerkes-dodson)
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social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
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deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity ex: ku klux klan
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group polarization
group discussions with like-minded others strengthen members' prevailing beliefs and attitudes
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groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
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individual power
power of the individual and the power of the situation interact.a small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway the majority.
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prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
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stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
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discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
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just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
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ingroup
"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.
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outgroup
"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
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ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
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scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
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frustration-aggression principle
the principle that frustration creates anger, which can generate aggression
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social scripts
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
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genetic influence of aggression
genetic Y chromosome marker, alcohol
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neural influences of aggression
aggression is more likely to occur with frontal lobe damage
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biochemical influences of aggression
Testosterone linked with irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration; alcohol effect
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psychology of attraction
proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity
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mere exposure effect
the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure
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passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
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two-factor theory of emotion
emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal and cognitive appraisal
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companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
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altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
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bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
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social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
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socialization norm
social expectation that prescribes how we should behave
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reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
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social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them
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social traps
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
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mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
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self-fulfilling prophecies
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
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superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
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personality
our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
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Frued's psychoanalytic theory
childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality
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psychodynamic theories
human behavior is the dynamic interaction between unconscious and conscious minds
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free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing (Freud used this)
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id, ego, superego
Frued's personality structure
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id
the unconscious portion of personality that contains basic impulses and urges; survive, reproduce, aggress; operates on the pleasure principle, seeks immediate gratification
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ego
the conscious, "executive" part of personality; operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's impulses to bring long-term pleasure; contains perceptions, thoughts, judgements, and memories
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superego
the partly conscious part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations; strives for perfection
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psychosexual stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
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oral
0-18 months, pleasure centers on the mouth; sucking, biting, cfhewing
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anal
18-36 months, pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
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phallic
3-6 years, pleasure zone of the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings.
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latency
6 years-puberty, dormant sexual feelings
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genital
puberty on, maturation of sexual interactions
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Oedipus complex
according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
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identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos
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fixate
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
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defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
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repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories; underlies all defense mechanisms
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regression
retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated ex: boy reverts back to oral comfort of thumb sucking on the first day of school
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reaction formation
switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites ex: someone's thats angry, acting overly happy
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projection
disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others ex: liar thinking everyone else is lying
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rationalization
offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions ex: alcoholic saying their just a social drinker
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displacement
shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person ex: girl kicks a dog after being put in time out
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denial
refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities ex: denying evidence of someone
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collective unconscious
Jung's theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture's most basic elements
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terror management theory
a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death
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projective test
tests ask test-takers to respond to an ambiguous image by describing it or telling a story about it
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humanistic theory
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth
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trait theory
A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions; uses personality inventories
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person-centered perspective
people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally; characteristics of a growth-promoting environment include genuineness, acceptance, and empathy
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unconditional positive regard
according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
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self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
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low
brain-activity scans of extraverts indicate that they seek stimulation because normal brain arousal is relatively _____
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introverts
_______ seek low levels of stimulation from their environment
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extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability
two personality dimensions
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big five factors
five factors that describe a personality; openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
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social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context. emphasizes the interaction of people with their environment
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reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment; different people choose different environments and personalities shape how people interpret and react to events
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spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders
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self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
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self-efficacy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
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self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably; people accept more responsibility for good deeds rather than bad
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narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption
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defensive self-esteem
fragile; focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening
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secure self-esteem
less fragile, less contingent on external evaluations, and more likely to achieve a greater quality of life
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psychological disorder
disturbance in a person's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior
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medical model
the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.
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DSM-5
describes disorders and estimates their occurrence
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phobias; major depressive disorder
the symptoms of _______ appear around age 10, ___________ tends to appear around age 25.
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anxiety disorders
distressing, persistent anxiety or dysfunctional anxiety-reducing behaviors
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generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal
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panic disorder
an anxiety disorder that consists of sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror
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