Chapter 2 Psychological Research

Flashcards containing terms and definitions from the lecture notes.

Empirical

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

Deductive Reasoning

Ideas are tested against the empirical world.

Inductive Reasoning

Empirical observations lead to new ideas.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement.

Falsifiable

Capable of being shown to be incorrect.

Clinical or Case Study

Scientists are conducting a clinical or case study when they focus on one person or just a few individuals.

Generalizing

Refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural setting.

Ecological Validity

Realism, than we might achieve with other research approaches.

Observer Bias

People who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations.

Inter-rater reliability

A measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers.

Surveys

Lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a population.

Population

The overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in.

Archival Research

Relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships.

Longitudinal Research

A research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

Cross-sectional Research

A researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time.

Attrition Rates

Reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts, in longitudinal studies are quite high and increases over the course of a project.

Correlation

Means that there is a relationship between two or more variables (such as ice cream consumption and crime), but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect.

Correlation Coefficient

A number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r.

Confounding Variable

Some other factor is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest.

Illusory Correlations

Or false correlations, occur when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists.

Confirmation Bias

We have a hunch about how something works and then look for evidence to support that hunch, ignoring evidence that would tell us our hunch is false.

Experimental Group

Gets the experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested.

Control Group

Does not get the experimental manipulation.

Operational Definition

A description of how we will measure our variables, and it is important in allowing others to understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment.

Experimenter Bias

Refers to the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study.

Single-Blind Study

One of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group.

Double-Blind Study

Both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments.

Placebo Effect

Occurs when people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation.

Independent Variable

Is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

Is what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had.

Participants

The subjects of psychological research, and as the name implies, individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate in the process.

Random Sample

A subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Random Assignment

All participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.

Statistical Analysis

Determines how likely any difference found is due to chance (and thus not meaningful).

Reliability

Refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result.

Validity

Refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution’s administration, scientists, and community members.

Informed Consent Form

Provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research.

Deception

Involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful.

Debriefing

Complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment, how the data collected will be used, the reasons why deception was necessary, and information about how to obtain additional information about the study.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Consists of institutional administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members. This committee is charged with ensuring that all experimental proposals require the humane treatment of animal research subjects.

action potential

electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon

adrenal gland

sits atop our kidneys and secretes hormones involved in the stress response

agonist

drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter

all-or-none

phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation

allele

specific version of a gene

amygdala

structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

antagonist

drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

auditory cortex

strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information

autonomic nervous system

controls our internal organs and glands

axon

major extension of the soma

biological perspective

view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

Broca’s area

region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

cerebellum

hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

cerebral cortex

surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities

chromosome

long strand of genetic information

computerized tomography (CT) scan

imaging technique in which a computer coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area

corpus callosum

thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain’s two hemispheres

dendrite

branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

diabetes

disease related to insufficient insulin production

dominant allele

allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele

electroencephalography (EEG)

recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp

endocrine system

series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones

epigenetics

study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes

fight or flight response

activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety

forebrain

largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures

fraternal twins

twins who develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so their genetic material varies the same as in non-twin siblings

frontal lobe

part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time

gene

sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics

genetic environmental correlation

view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes

genotype

genetic makeup of an individual

glial cell

nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport

gonad

secretes sexual hormones, which are important for successful reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behavior

gyrus

bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex

hemisphere

left or right half of the brain

heterozygous

consisting of two different alleles

hindbrain

division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

hippocampus

structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory

homeostasis

state of equilibrium—biological conditions, such as body temperature, are maintained at optimal levels

homozygous

consisting of two identical alleles

hypothalamus

forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system

identical twins

twins that develop from the same sperm and egg

lateralization

concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions

limbic system

collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory

longitudinal fissure

deep groove in the brain’s cortex

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged

medulla

hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

membrane potential

difference in charge across the neuronal membrane

midbrain

division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation

motor cortex

strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement

mutation

sudden, permanent change in a gene

myelin sheath

fatty substance that insulates axons

neuron

cells in the nervous system that act as interconnect information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system

neurotransmitter

chemical messenger of the nervous system

occipital lobe

part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex