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psych chapter 2
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31 Terms
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cycle of science
1) theory 2) hypothesis 3) design an experiment 4) collect data 5) analyze data 6) generate conclusions
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1) Theory
\- General and provides predictions for multiple hypotheses
\- Background information
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2) Hypothesis
\- Generate a questions based on understanding of theory
\- make a prediction, yes/no question
\- conceptual, research, statistical
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3) design an experiment
\- Operationalize (define) your variables in terms of specific procedures used to produce or measure it
\- Design experiment to answer your question
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independent variable
manipulated
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dependent variable
measured- what changes
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confounding variable
\- cant control but will effect your dependent variable
\- such as home life (conflict)
\- rival explanations
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participant/organism variable
\- inherent to participant
\- age, weight, socioeconomic status, education, relationship, gender/sex, etc.
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5) Analyze Data
\- Measures of central tendencies (mean, median, mode), deviation scores (statistics)
\- Draw tentative conclusions
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6) generate conclusions
\- publish an article/peer-reviewed
\- make a poster, etc.
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Hindsight Understanding
\- Post Hoc, after the fact
\- doesn’t use scientific method
\- disadvantage: bias- past events can be described in many different ways
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A Priori
\- understand through prediction, control and theory building
\- uses scientific method, hypothesis testing, theory development
\- advantages: curiosity, builds knowledge, principles can be applied to new situations
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Unobtrusive Measures
\- record behaviour in a way that keeps participants unaware that certain responses are being measured
\- observer bias- could miss interactions which do not support testing
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Descriptive method of research
\- Describe the data within the sample
\- Examine natural settings
\- Extraneous factors not controlled- confound variables
\- Low internal validity, cannot assume cause and effect
\- Case studies; naturalistic observation; surveys
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inferential method of research
\- samples are used to generalize the entire population
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correlational research
\- examines relationships between two continuous variables (X and Y), then statistically measures if X and Y are related
\- does not equal causation, spurious (3rd variable)
\- can be used to make predictions about variables, extrapolation
\- identifies real world associations
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Pearson's R coefficient/ correlation
\- ranges from -1.0 to +1.0
1) Direction (+) or (-)
2) Strength |value| (aka all become positive)
\- Must separate strength and sign and direction
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case studies
\- in-depth analysis of an individual group or event
\- advantages: uses for rare phenomena, challenges validity of theories, illustrate effectiveness of programs for special populations
\- disadvantages: can’t determine cause-effect, does not apply to general population, researcher bias
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Naturalistic observation
\- observation as it occurs in a natural setting
\- must be unobtrusive
\- high external validity- high generalizability
\- low internal validity- does not permit clear casual conclusions
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hawthorne effect
\- individuals change their behaviour when they know they are being watched or measured
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survey research
\- needs representative sample
\- reflects imp characteristics of the population, but cannot study entire population
\- uses random sampling- equal probability (random assignment)
\- easy and cheap
\- question of honest validity
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bidirectional correlation
\- two way causality- X causes Y, Y causes X
\- Better social relationships increase happiness, optimism could attract more people and better relationships
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positive correlation
\- positive relationship (+), variables change in the same direction
\- as height increases so does weight or shoe size
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negative correlation
\- negative relationship (-), variables change in opposite directions
\- depression increases as number of daylight decreases
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characteristics of an experiment
\- manipulate the independent variable, measure the changes in the dependent variable, and control factors which might influence results
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internal validity
\- degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions
\- good experiments can be confident the independent was the cause of the dependent variable (high)
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external validity
\- how much experiment results can be generalized to other parts of society, settings and conditions
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placebo effect
\- change in behaviour based on expectations
\- japanese poisonous leaf experiment
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experimenter expectancy effects
\- unintentional ways experimenters influence participants
\- minimize w double-blind procedure or with single blind
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Meta-Analysis
\- A statistical procedure for combining the results of different studies that examine the same topic to test the overall significance of the findings
\- Not a primary source
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Cross-cultural replication
* Examining whether findings generalize across different cultures
* Theories of psychology usually have a western bias