Honors Chemistry Final - 2025

KMT (Kinetic Molecular Theory)

1. All matter is made of particles

2. The particles are in constant motion

3. As energy is added, the particles speed up

4. As the particles speed up, they spread apart

5. Different particles have different amounts of

intermolecular force

KMT in relation to solids

- Particles are fixed

- ordered

- least KE

- definite shape/volume

KMT in relation to liquids

- Particles are closely packed, but more space than in solids

- More KE than solids, enough so that particles can slide past each other

- weaker IMF

- definite volume/indefinite shape

Vapor Pressure and boiling point

the vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor over a liquid. Boiling point is when a liquid's vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

Types of IMF (Intermolecular Forces)

LDF

- weakest force

Dipole Dipole

- Polar bond

H-Bond

- hydrogen + highly electronegative

different types of solids and their relation to IMFs.

Ionic solids - high IMF

Molecular solids - weak IMF (LDF, H, D-D)

Covalent Network Solids - covalent bonds with crystal lattice

Metallic Solids - metalic bonds

volatility

a measure of how readily a substance vaporizes

Equilibrium

rate of evaporation = rate of condensation

Condensation

Gas to liquid

amorphous solid

A solid made up of particles that are not arranged in a regular pattern

five assumptions of KMT that relate to gases

1- Gas particles are in constant, random motion

2- gas particle volume is unimportant

3- Gas particles don't interact with each other

4- Gas particle collisions are completely elastic

5- Average KE of gas is proportional to temp.

difference between an ideal gas and a real gas

Ideal Gas - assumes gases have no IMF and volume

Real Gas - a gas that does have volume and IMF

conditions under which an ideal gas does not behave like a real gas

High pressure and low temperature

Boyle's Law

As Pressure Increases, volume decreases

P1xV1=P2xV2

Charles's Law

As temp. increases, volume increases

V1/T1 = V2/T2

Gay-Lussac's Law

As temp increases, pressure increases

P1/T1 = P2/T2

Combined Gas Law

The relationship between the pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of gas

P1xV1 = P2 x V2

T1 T2

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture

Ptot= P1 + P2 + P3 + ...

STP (standard temperature and pressure)

T = 273 K

P = 1 atm

n = 1 mol of any gas

V = 22.4 L

Ideal Gas Law

PV=nRT

Properties of solutions

Solute - what gets dissolved

Solvent - what does the dissolving

Electrolyte Solution

a solution containing a solute that dissociates into ions. Conducts current when dissolving in water

dissolution

the breaking up or dissolving of something into parts; disintegration

Molarity (M)

moles of solute/liters of solution

Molality (m)

moles of solute/kg of solvent

Freezing point formula

ΔTf = (Kf)(m)(i)

Tf = change in freezing point

Kf = freezing constant

m = molality

i= vant hoff Factor

Boiling point formula

ΔTb = (Kb)(m)(i)

Tb = change in boiling point

Kb = boiling constant

m = molality

i= vant hoff factor

Properties of acids and bases

Acids-

Taste: Sour (vinegar)

Smell: Frequently burns nose

Texture: Sticky

Reactivity: Frequently react with metals to form H2

Bases-

Taste: Bitter (baking soda)

Smell: Usually no smell (except NH3!)

Texture: Slippery

Reactivity: React with many oils and fats

Arhenius Base and acid

Base - Ionizes to produce OH- Ions

Acid - produces H+

Bronsted-Lowry acid and base

Acid - a molecule or ion that is a proton donor

Base - proton acceptor

Lewis acid/base

acid: electron pair acceptor

base: electron pair donor

Strong Acids and Bases

A = H2SO4, HNO3 , HClO3, HClO4, HCl, HBr, HI

B= Group 1 with OH, Ba(OH)2

Weak Acids and Bases

A= HC2H3O2, H2CO3 (any other acids)

B= NH3 (any other bases)

monoprotic acid

an acid that can donate only one proton to a base

diprotic acid

an acid that can donate two protons per molecule in a base

polyprotic acid

an acid that can donate more than one proton per molecule

Hydronium

H3O+

hydroxide ion

OH-

self-ionization of water

H2O → H + OH-

or

H2O + H2O → H3O + OH-

pOH

the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration

pH

hydrogen ion concentration

Neutral/acidity

pH of 7 is neutral

[H+] = [OH-] = 1 x10-7 M = neutral

Ion product constant for water

[H+] x [OH-] = 1 x10-14 = Kw

If [H+] > [OH-] = acidic

If [H+] < [OH-] = basic

pH formula

pH=-log[H+]

pOH formula

pOH=-log[OH-]

Ka

acid ionization constant to tell how weak an acid is

Ka formula

Ka = [H+] x [A-] / [HA]

salt hydrolysis

a process in which the cations or anions of a dissociated salt accept hydrogen ions from water or donate hydrogen ions to water

How to tell in salt hydrolysis if a salt will produce a neutral, acidic, or basic solution.

salt of SA + SB= neutral Ex. NaCl

2. salt of SA + WB= acidic Ex. MgCl2

3. salt of WA = SB= basic Ex. NaF

4. salt of WA + WB= depends on Ka and Kb

If Ka > Kb then acidic

If Ka < Kb then basic

Specific Heat Formula

q=mc∆T

Enthalpy

energy transferred during a reaction as heat; symbol is ∆H

Enthalpy formula

∆H= Hprod – Hreac

How to tell if enthalpy is exo or endo

(exothermic= - ∆H)

(endothermic= + ∆H)

heat of reaction vs heat of formation

HOR = overall change in energy

HOF = change in enthalpy when one mole of a compound is formed

Hess's Law

the overall enthalpy change in a reaction is equal to the sum of enthalpy changes for the individual steps in the process

Entropy

A measure of disorder or randomness.

Free energy formula and sponteneity

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

G= - then it is spon

G= + it is non-spon

collision theory

states that atoms, ions, and molecules must collide in order to react

Factors that influence reaction time

1: reactivity of reactants

2: surface area (more=faster)

3: Temp. (faster at higher temps.)

4: Concentration (Higher = faster)

5: Catalyst

Energy diagram

Activation Complex

transitional structure that results from a successful collision

Rate Law

R= k[react]n [react]m

k= rate constant, n and m= coefficients

Rate order

0 order = no effect on rate

1st order = 1 to 1 effect on the rate

2nd order = 1 to square ratio

Equilibrium reaction

K= [prod]^w[prod]^z / [react]^x [react]^y

K >1 (large) means prods favored

K <1 (small) means reacts favored

Le Chatelier's Principle

1. pressure= higher pressure will go to the side with fewer molecules and lower pressure will go to the side with more molecules

2. [concentration] = will favor the side with higher concentration

3. temp= higher temp favors endothermic, the lower temp favors exothermic

How to find q in equilibrium reaction

Q= [prod]^w[prod]^z / [react]^x [react]^y

How does q tell us which way we shift in equilibrium

K is given

If Q > K shifts left

If Q< K shifts right

Oxidation and reduction

oxidation: loss of electrons (LEO)

reduction: gain of electrons (GER)

galvanic cell

Anode

the electrode at which oxidation occurs

Cathode

the electrode at which reduction occurs