APUSH Module 15

Good Neighbor Policy:

The Good Neighbor Policy was President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s approach to Latin America, promising non-intervention and cooperation. It marked a shift from earlier U.S. military interventions in the region. Roosevelt believed mutual respect would improve diplomatic and economic relations. The policy helped counter growing European influence in the Western Hemisphere.

Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, 1937:

These laws were passed to prevent U.S. involvement in foreign wars by banning arms sales and loans to warring nations. They reflected isolationist sentiment after World War I. Over time, they were amended to allow “cash and carry” sales to allies. However, the acts ultimately limited U.S. flexibility as threats from Germany, Italy, and Japan grew.

FDR’s Quarantine Speech:

In 1937, President Roosevelt suggested quarantining aggressive nations to stop the spread of war. The speech hinted at a shift from strict neutrality toward active opposition to fascism. It received mixed reactions, with many Americans fearing entanglement in foreign conflicts. Nonetheless, it showed Roosevelt’s growing concern about Axis powers.

Cash & Carry to Lend-Lease:

“Cash and Carry” allowed warring nations to buy U.S. goods if they paid cash and transported them themselves. As Axis aggression worsened, Roosevelt proposed Lend-Lease in 1941. Lend-Lease let the U.S. supply arms to Allies without immediate payment. This move helped Britain and later the Soviet Union survive against Nazi Germany.

“Arsenal of Democracy”:

Roosevelt called the U.S. the “Arsenal of Democracy” in a 1940 speech. He emphasized America’s role in supplying weapons and materials to Allied nations. This policy was crucial before the U.S. entered World War II. It highlighted the nation’s shift toward active support of democracy abroad without direct combat involvement—yet.

Fair Employment Practices Act:

The Fair Employment Practices Committee (not an Act) was created by Executive Order 8802 in 1941. It aimed to prevent discrimination in defense industries and federal jobs. African American leaders like A. Philip Randolph pressured Roosevelt into this move. Although enforcement was weak, it was a major step toward civil rights during WWII.

Manhattan Project:

The Manhattan Project was the U.S. secret program to develop atomic weapons during World War II. It began in 1942 and involved scientists across the country, especially at Los Alamos. The project successfully built the first atomic bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It marked the beginning of the nuclear age.

Robert Oppenheimer:

J. Robert Oppenheimer was the lead scientist of the Manhattan Project. Known as the “father of the atomic bomb,” he played a pivotal role in the bomb’s development. After the war, he expressed deep ambivalence about nuclear weapons. His later opposition to the hydrogen bomb caused political controversy during the Red Scare.

Executive Order 9066:

Signed by Roosevelt in 1942, Executive Order 9066 authorized the internment of Japanese Americans. Over 110,000 people, most of them U.S. citizens, were forcibly relocated. The action was justified on grounds of “military necessity” but rooted in racism and fear. It remains a dark chapter in American civil liberties history.

Korematsu v. US (1944):

In this case, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066. Fred Korematsu challenged his internment as a violation of his rights. The Court ruled that national security needs outweighed individual freedoms during wartime. The decision is now widely criticized for endorsing racial discrimination.

Big Three:

The “Big Three” referred to Roosevelt (USA), Churchill (UK), and Stalin (USSR) during World War II. They led the Allied powers in the fight against the Axis. They met at key conferences to plan military strategies and post-war policies. Their alliance was strained but vital for defeating Hitler.

Yalta & Potsdam Conference:

At Yalta (Feb 1945), the Big Three planned the final defeat of Germany and discussed postwar Europe, including dividing Germany into zones. At Potsdam (July 1945), new leaders (Truman and Attlee) met with Stalin to finalize those plans. Tensions over Eastern Europe emerged strongly at Potsdam. These conferences foreshadowed the coming Cold War.

Containment:

Containment was the U.S. strategy to stop the spread of communism during the Cold War. First articulated by diplomat George Kennan, it shaped U.S. foreign policy for decades. The idea was to counter Soviet expansion through alliances, economic aid, and sometimes military force. Containment motivated involvement in conflicts like Korea and Vietnam.

NATO:

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created in 1949 as a military alliance. It bound Western nations together against the threat of Soviet aggression. An attack on one member was considered an attack on all. NATO became a key element of Cold War military strategy.

Warsaw Pact:

The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet Union’s response to NATO, formed in 1955. It was a military alliance of Eastern European communist nations. The Pact ensured Soviet control over its satellites. It dissolved in 1991 after the fall of communist governments across Eastern Europe.

Marshall Plan:

The Marshall Plan was an American initiative to rebuild Western Europe after WWII. It provided over $12 billion in aid to help countries recover economically. It also aimed to prevent the spread of communism by stabilizing these nations. The Plan was a major success in promoting prosperity and democracy.

Berlin Airlift:

The Berlin Airlift (1948–1949) was a response to the Soviet blockade of West Berlin. The U.S. and its allies flew food and supplies into the city for nearly a year. It demonstrated American resolve during the early Cold War. The blockade eventually ended without war.

GI Bill:

The GI Bill, passed in 1944, provided benefits for WWII veterans. It included funding for education, housing loans, and unemployment assistance. It helped millions of veterans integrate into postwar American life. The GI Bill is credited with fueling economic growth and expanding the middle class.The GI Bill significantly improved veterans' access to higher education and homeownership, leading to a better quality of life and contributing to the prosperity of the postwar economy.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC):

HUAC was a congressional committee that investigated alleged communist influence in America. It became especially active after WWII, targeting Hollywood, government workers, and others. HUAC hearings often violated civil liberties. The committee’s actions fueled widespread fear and suspicion during the Red Scare.

McCarthyism:

Named after Senator Joseph McCarthy, McCarthyism describes the anti-communist hysteria of the early 1950s. McCarthy made reckless accusations without solid evidence. Many Americans lost their jobs or reputations because of suspected communist ties. McCarthyism eventually collapsed under its own excesses.

1. Military Readiness in 1939:

When war broke out in Europe, the U.S. military was small and poorly prepared for large-scale conflict. Recognizing this, Roosevelt and Congress began to ramp up military production. The 1940 Selective Service Act instituted the first peacetime draft. Roosevelt also increased defense spending significantly to prepare for possible U.S. involvement.

2. Historians on Atomic Bomb Decision:

Some historians argue that ending the war was not the only reason for using the atomic bomb. They suggest the U.S. wanted to intimidate the Soviet Union and shape postwar diplomacy. Critics point out that Japan was already on the brink of surrender. The bomb’s use may have been influenced by broader geopolitical motives.

3. Postwar Economy:

After WWII, government spending and consumer demand kept the U.S. from falling into another depression. The GI Bill boosted education and housing, stimulating economic growth. However, the nation faced inflation, strikes, and the challenge of converting wartime industries to peacetime production. Overall, the U.S. economy entered a long period of prosperity.

Suez Crisis:

In 1956, Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, previously controlled by Britain and France. In response, Britain, France, and Israel launched a military intervention. The U.S. and Soviet Union both pressured them to withdraw, marking a shift in global power. The crisis demonstrated the declining influence of European powers.

Military-Industrial Complex:

President Eisenhower warned against the “military-industrial complex” in his 1961 farewell address. He feared that a powerful alliance between the military and defense industries could influence government policy. This relationship could prioritize war-making over peaceful solutions. His warning remains relevant today.

Bay of Pigs Invasion:

In 1961, Cuban exiles trained by the CIA attempted to overthrow Fidel Castro. The invasion at the Bay of Pigs failed disastrously. It embarrassed the Kennedy administration and strengthened Castro’s position. The fiasco pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union.

Cuban Missile Crisis:

In 1962, the U.S. discovered Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, sparking a major crisis. After tense negotiations, the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles. The U.S. secretly agreed to remove missiles from Turkey. The crisis is seen as the closest the Cold War came to nuclear war.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution:

Passed in 1964 after alleged attacks on U.S. ships, it gave President Johnson broad authority to escalate the Vietnam War. Congress essentially handed over its war-declaring powers. The resolution led to massive U.S. troop deployments. It was later criticized as a blank check for war.

Domino Theory:

The Domino Theory suggested that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow. It was a major justification for U.S. involvement in Vietnam. American policymakers believed that Southeast Asia was especially vulnerable. The theory was later questioned after the Vietnam War.

Vietnamization:

Vietnamization was President Nixon’s policy to gradually withdraw U.S. troops and turn the fighting over to South Vietnamese forces. It aimed to end U.S. involvement without appearing to lose the war. Despite large withdrawals, fighting and bombing continued. Vietnamization ultimately failed when South Vietnam collapsed.

Kent State Massacre:

In 1970, National Guard troops shot and killed four students at Kent State University during an anti-war protest. The protest was against Nixon’s expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia. The massacre shocked the nation and fueled public outrage. It became a symbol of the deep divisions over the war.

Détente:

Détente was a policy of easing Cold War tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union. It led to arms control agreements and increased diplomatic communication. Leaders like Nixon and Brezhnev pursued détente during the 1970s. The policy was later undermined by renewed tensions in the late 1970s and 1980s.

Pentagon Papers:

The Pentagon Papers were a secret Department of Defense study of U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Leaked in 1971, they revealed that the government had misled the public about the war’s progress. The papers intensified public distrust of government officials. They also fueled antiwar sentiment.

SALT I / SALT II:

The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) aimed to curb the arms race between the U.S. and USSR. SALT I in 1972 limited certain types of nuclear weapons and missiles. SALT II was negotiated later but never formally ratified because of Soviet actions. These agreements represented early efforts at arms control.The agreements showcased the willingness of both superpowers to engage in diplomacy during the Cold War, although their effectiveness was limited by subsequent geopolitical developments.

American Hostage Crisis (Iran):

In 1979, Iranian militants seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran, holding 52 Americans hostage. The crisis lasted 444 days and humiliated President Carter. It symbolized the collapse of U.S. influence in Iran after the Shah’s overthrow. The hostages were freed when Ronald Reagan took office.

SDI “Star Wars”:

The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was proposed by President Reagan in 1983. It envisioned a missile defense system that could intercept and destroy nuclear missiles in space. Critics dubbed it “Star Wars” and questioned its feasibility. It escalated Cold War tensions but also pressured the Soviets economically.

Perestroika / Glasnost:

Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (openness) were reform policies introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union. Perestroika aimed to reform the stagnant economy, while Glasnost promoted greater political transparency. These reforms unintentionally weakened communist control. They contributed to the USSR’s eventual collapse.

Mikhail Gorbachev:

Gorbachev was the last leader of the Soviet Union. He introduced reforms like Perestroika and Glasnost to revitalize the system. Instead, they unleashed forces that ended communist rule in Eastern Europe and the USSR itself. Gorbachev is remembered as a key figure in ending the Cold War.

1. Political Significance of U-2 Incident:

In 1960, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. The incident embarrassed the United States and worsened Cold War tensions. It caused the collapse of a major U.S.-Soviet summit. The U-2 incident showed the deep mistrust between the two superpowers.

2. Low Morale in Late 1960s:

U.S. troops in Vietnam faced harsh conditions, unclear missions, and little progress. Many soldiers began to feel disillusioned about the war’s purpose. Drug use and racial tensions also undermined morale. The draft system, seen as unfair, further fueled resentment.

3. Nixon and Cambodia Bombing:

Nixon bombed Cambodia secretly to disrupt North Vietnamese supply lines without provoking domestic outrage. He feared public opposition would grow if the bombing was made public. When the invasion of Cambodia was revealed in 1970, massive protests erupted across the U.S. The Kent State shootings were one tragic consequence.

4. Pentagon Papers’ Revelations:

The Pentagon Papers showed that U.S. leaders had misled the public about Vietnam. They revealed that officials privately doubted the war’s success while publicly expressing optimism. The release fueled antiwar sentiment. It also deepened the public’s distrust of government.

5. End of the Soviet Union:

Gorbachev’s reforms unintentionally weakened communist control and unleashed demands for independence. Eastern European countries overthrew their communist governments in 1989. In 1991, hardliners attempted a coup, but it failed, and the USSR collapsed. In its place, independent republics like Russia, Ukraine, and others emerged.