exam 3

Nadir

• Definition: The Nadir of race relations refers to the period after Reconstruction (late 1800s–early 1900s) when anti-Black racism reached extreme levels. During this time, lynching, segregation, and disenfranchisement were widespread. It marked a low point in African American civil rights and social standing.

• Significance: It marked the backlash against Black progress during Reconstruction and the rise of Jim Crow laws.

Disfranchisement

• Definition: The denial or restriction of voting rights, particularly targeting African Americans through poll taxes, literacy tests, etc.

• Significance: It severely limited Black political power after Reconstruction and enabled segregationist policies.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

• Definition: Supreme Court case that legalized racial segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine.

• Significance: Justified Jim Crow laws and remained legal precedent until Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

New Negro Movement

• Definition: A cultural and political movement encouraging Black Americans to assert their rights and cultural identity.

• Significance: Sparked the Harlem Renaissance and laid groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement.

Negritude

• Definition: Francophone Black intellectual movement celebrating African culture and heritage.

• Significance: Opposed colonialism and European cultural domination; laid foundations for decolonization ideologies.

Harlem Renaissance

• Definition: A 1920s–30s artistic, literary, and cultural movement centered in Harlem that celebrated Black life.

• Significance: Reclaimed Black identity through creativity, influencing civil rights activism.

Alain Locke

• Definition: Philosopher and editor of The New Negro anthology.

• Significance: Intellectual leader of the Harlem Renaissance who promoted Black cultural pride.

Claude McKay

• Definition: Harlem Renaissance poet known for works like If We Must Die.

• Significance: Captured the struggle and defiance of Black Americans facing racism.

Marcus Garvey

• Definition: Jamaican-born Black nationalist and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).

• Significance: Advocated for Black pride, economic independence, and return to Africa—pioneer of global Pan-Africanism.

Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)

• Definition: Garvey-led organization promoting Black unity, pride, and self-reliance.

• Significance: One of the largest Black movements; influenced future Black power and liberation movements.

Edward W. Blyden

• Definition: Pan-Africanist intellectual who advocated for African pride and return to African roots.

• Significance: Predecessor to Garvey and Du Bois; promoted an African-centered identity.

Chief Alfred Sam

• Definition: African entrepreneur who organized a "Back to Africa" resettlement campaign for African Americans.

• Significance: Early attempt at Pan-Africanism and Black self-determination.

C.L.R. James

• Definition: Trinidadian historian and political theorist.

• Significance: His book The Black Jacobins linked Black resistance in Haiti to global anti-colonial struggles.

The Black Jacobins

• Definition: C.L.R. James’s history of the Haitian Revolution.

• Significance: Elevated the revolution's importance in the global fight against slavery and colonialism.

Moorish Science Temple of America

• Definition: A Black religious movement founded by Noble Drew Ali, promoting Islamic identity and African ancestry.

• Significance: One of the first religious groups to combine Black pride and identity with spiritual belief.

Noble Drew Ali

• Definition: Founder of the Moorish Science Temple; preached that African Americans were Moors and Muslims.

• Significance: Paved the way for later groups like the Nation of Islam.

Nation of Islam

• Definition: Founder of the Moorish Science Temple; preached that African Americans were Moors and Muslims.

• Significance: Paved the way for later groups like the Nation of Islam.

W.D. Fard Muhammad

• Definition: Founder of the Nation of Islam, seen by followers as a divine figure.

• Significance: Laid foundation for Black religious nationalism in the U.S.

Elijah Muhammad

• Definition: Leader of the Nation of Islam after Fard; mentored Malcolm X.

• Significance: Expanded the movement and emphasized economic independence and self-discipline.

Great Migration (Push & Pull Factors)

• Definition: Mass movement of Black Southerners to the North (1910s–70s).

• Push: Racism, violence, sharecropping, poverty

• Pull: Factory jobs, voting rights, better education

• Significance: Transformed American demographics and fueled Black urban culture (Harlem, Chicago, Detroit).

Tulsa and Black Wall Street

• Definition: Greenwood District in Tulsa, OK—one of the most prosperous Black communities—destroyed in 1921 race massacre.

• Significance: Symbol of Black success and white racial violence; erased generational Black wealth.

Berlin Conference (1884–85)

• Definition: European powers divided Africa into colonies without African input.

• Significance: Launched "Scramble for Africa," leading to deep exploitation and loss of sovereignty.

Liberia

• Definition: West African country established by freed African Americans via the American Colonization Society.

• Significance: First African republic; symbol of African American aspirations for return to Africa.

American Colonization Society

• Definition: 19th-century group advocating for resettling free Blacks in Africa.

• Significance: Supported by some Black leaders and whites—viewed as controversial.

Ethiopia

• Definition: Ancient African kingdom that resisted colonization.

• Significance: Symbol of African independence and pride; sacred to Rastafarians.

Battle of Aduwa (1896)

• Definition: Ethiopian victory over Italian invaders.

• Significance: Major anti-colonial win that inspired Pan-Africanists and Black nationalists.

Social Darwinism

• Definition: Application of Darwin's theories to human society—used to justify inequality and racism.

• Significance: Gave a “scientific” excuse for imperialism and racial segregation.

Scientific Racism

• Definition: Pseudoscience claiming biological racial differences determined intelligence or morality.

• Significance: Fueled slavery, colonization, and segregationist policies.

Eugenics

• Definition: Movement to improve human populations through selective breeding.

• Significance: Used to justify sterilization and racial hierarchies.

White Man’s Burden

• Definition: Colonialist idea that white Europeans had to "civilize" non-white peoples.

• Significance: Justified imperialism and oppression under a moral pretense.

Herbert Spencer

• Definition: Philosopher who coined "survival of the fittest" and promoted Social Darwinism.

• Significance: Influenced racist and imperialist ideologies globally.

Francis Galton

• Definition: Founder of the eugenics movement.

• Significance: His ideas influenced policies of racial hygiene and segregation.

Booker T. Washington

• Definition: Founder of Tuskegee Institute; promoted vocational training and accommodation with whites.

• Significance: Influential but criticized for being too conciliatory.

W.E.B. Du Bois

• Definition: Scholar, co-founder of the NAACP; promoted higher education and political activism.

• Significance: Opposed Washington; emphasized "Talented Tenth" leadership.

William Monroe Trotter

• Definition: Civil rights leader and editor of The Guardian newspaper.

• Significance: Critic of Booker T. Washington and early advocate of full civil rights.

Rayford Logan

• Definition: Historian who labeled the Nadir and wrote about African American disenfranchisement.

• Significance: Brought scholarly attention to post-Reconstruction regression.

Paul Robeson

• Definition: Multi-talented actor, singer, and political activist.

• Significance: Advocated for global racial equality and civil rights despite McCarthy-era persecution.

What role did African labor play in the construction of the Panama Canal?

African-descended workers, mainly from the British Caribbean (Jamaica, Barbados, etc.), were recruited in large numbers due to their perceived resilience to tropical diseases. They were paid less than white workers and assigned the most physically demanding and dangerous tasks, such as excavation and dynamite handling. Their labor was essential to the completion of the canal, but they faced racial segregation, poor living conditions, and a dual pay system that privileged white workers.

How did Latin American countries such as Brazil institute their “whitening” policies?

Post-slavery, Brazil encouraged massive European immigration with the goal of "branqueamento" or racial whitening. The state provided incentives for white Europeans to migrate, believing that over time, mixing with Europeans would lead to a whiter population. At the same time, African cultural practices were suppressed, and Eurocentric values were promoted in education and public policy to erase African heritage and elevate whiteness as an ideal.

. According to Gomez, what were the three streams of religious traditions practiced by Black people after slavery?

1. Christianity – Often adapted to include African elements like call-and-response worship, spirituals, and charismatic preaching.

2. Islam – Retained especially among West African Muslims; although diminished, it continued through oral traditions and cultural practices.

3. Traditional African Religions – Persisted in syncretic forms such as Vodun in Haiti, Candomblé in Brazil, and Santería in Cuba, blending African deities with Catholic saints.

Why did Marcus Garvey first come to the United States?

Garvey arrived in the U.S. in 1916 primarily to raise funds for his newspaper, The Negro World, and to expand his Pan-Africanist movement. He was inspired by Booker T. Washington’s ideas and aimed to organize African descendants globally for economic independence, racial pride, and eventual return to Africa.

According to the Liberia documentary, what tensions existed between African American expatriates and indigenous Africans in Liberia?

African American settlers (Americo-Liberians) often imposed American-style governance, religion, and social norms on the indigenous population. They established hierarchical systems that marginalized local ethnic groups, creating political and cultural divisions. This led to long-term resentment, social inequality, and conflict, echoing colonial power dynamics.

How did the politics and impact of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois extend beyond the United States?

• Washington’s emphasis on vocational education influenced educational models in the Caribbean and parts of Africa, where colonizers saw his ideas as a blueprint for "civilizing" Black populations.

• Du Bois, through his leadership in Pan-African Congresses and writings, connected African American struggles to colonial oppression in Africa and the Caribbean, encouraging global Black solidarity and anti-colonial activism.

According to Kendra James, what is the relationship between African American migration to the western United States and Africa?

Kendra James draws a symbolic and historical link between African Americans seeking new opportunities in the western U.S. (often framed as a frontier of freedom) and the ideological or physical return to Africa. Both movements represent a desire for autonomy, land, identity reclamation, and escape from systemic racism.

According to Winston James, how does race and racism operate differently in the United States and the Caribbean?

In the U.S., race tends to be binary—Black or white—with strict legal and social boundaries. In contrast, the Caribbean has a more fluid racial system with multiple gradations (mulatto, mestizo, etc.), shaped by colonial histories. However, Winston James emphasizes that racism is still present in both regions, though it may manifest more subtly in the Caribbean through colorism and class-based discrimination.