KIN 2500 - Human Anatomy Exam Review (Chapters 1, 3, & 6)

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering Chapter 1 (Introduction & Body Organization), Chapter 3 (Tissues), and Chapter 6 (Bone Tissue) for KIN 2500 Human Anatomy.

What is the definition of anatomy as presented in Chapter 1?

The structural study of the human body, its parts, and their physical relationships to one another.

What are the six progressive levels of structural complexity in the human body, from simplest to most complex?

Chemical Level, Cellular Level, Tissue Level, Organ Level, System Level, and Organismal Level.

Which essential atoms combine to form molecular structures at the chemical level of organization?

Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Calcium (Ca).

What are the four primary tissue types that constitute the tissue level of organization?

Epithelial, connective (CT), muscular (MT), and nervous (NT).

What are the anatomical components and primary functions of the Integumentary System?

Components: Skin and associated structures (hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, oil glands). Functions: Protects body from environmental hazards, helps regulate body temperature, eliminates select wastes, helps produce vitamin D, detects sensations, stores fat, and provides insulation.

What are the components and functions of the Skeletal System?

Components: Bones, joints of the body, and associated cartilages. Functions: Supports and protects soft body tissues, provides a structural framework for physical movement, houses cells that produce blood cells, and stores essential minerals and lipids (fats).

What components form the Muscular System, and what are its physiological functions?

Components: Skeletal muscle tissue (muscles usually attached to bones). Functions: Powers body movements (e.g., walking), stabilizes body posture, and generates heat to maintain normal core body temperature.

What are the components and functions of the Cardiovascular System?

Components: Blood, heart, and blood vessels. Functions: Heart pumps blood through vessels; blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and removes carbon dioxide and wastes; regulates acid-base balance, temperature, and water content; defends against disease and repairs damaged blood vessels.

What are the anatomical components and core functions of the Lymphatic System and Immunity?

Components: Lymphatic fluid, lymphatic vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, and immune cells (B cells, T cells). Functions: Returns filtered proteins and fluid to the bloodstream, carries lipids from the GI tract to blood, and provides sites for maturation and proliferation of B and T cells.

What are the key components and functions of the Nervous System?

Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs (eyes, ears). Functions: Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities, detects internal and external environmental changes, interprets changes, and responds via muscle contractions or glandular secretions.

What components make up the Endocrine System, and how does it execute its function?

Components: Hormone-producing glands (pineal, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal) and hormone-producing cells in other organs. Function: Regulates body activities by releasing chemical messengers called hormones, which travel via blood to target organs.

What are the components and functions of the Respiratory System?

Components: Lungs and air passageways (pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes). Functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air, helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids, and produces sound via vocal cords.

What organs form the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and accessory organs of the Digestive System, and what are its functions?

GI Tract: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and anus. Accessory Organs: Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Functions: Physical and chemical breakdown of food, nutrient absorption, and solid waste elimination.

What are the components and functions of the Urinary System?

Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. Functions: Produces, stores, and eliminates urine; eliminates wastes and regulates blood volume/chemical composition; maintains acid-base and mineral balance; helps regulate red blood cell production.

What are the male and female components and core functions of the Reproductive Systems?

Components: Gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females) and associated organs (uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands in females; epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate, penis in males). Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) and release hormones; associated organs transport/store gametes; mammary glands produce milk.

What four criteria define the standard anatomical position?

1) Standing erect and facing the observer, 2) Feet flat on the floor and directed forward, 3) Upper limbs placed at the sides of the body, and 4) Palms turned forward (facing the observer).

What is the difference between prone and supine positional body orientations?

Prone means the body is lying face down, whereas supine means the body is lying face up.

What regions and sub-structures constitute the upper limbs and lower limbs?

Upper Limbs: Shoulder, Axilla (Armpit), Brachium (Arm), Antebrachium (Forearm), Carpus (Wrist), and Manus (Hand). Lower Limbs: Buttock (Gluteal), Thigh (Femoral), Crus (Leg), Tarsus (Ankle), and Pes (Foot).

What are the paired directional term opposites for: 1) Superior, 2) Anterior, 3) Medial, 4) Ipsilateral, 5) Proximal, and 6) Superficial?

1) Inferior (Caudal), 2) Posterior (Dorsal), 3) Lateral, 4) Contralateral, 5) Distal, and 6) Deep.

How do sagittal, midsagittal, and parasagittal planes differ?

Sagittal Plane: Vertical plane dividing body/organ into right and left sides. Midsagittal (Median) Plane: Passes directly through the vertical midline, dividing into equal right and left halves. Parasagittal Plane: Divides body/organ into unequal right and left portions.

What are the definitions of frontal (coronal), transverse (horizontal/axial), and oblique planes?

Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Cuts at a right angle to a sagittal plane, dividing body/organ into anterior and posterior portions. Transverse Plane: Parallel to the ground, dividing into superior and inferior portions. Oblique Plane: Passes through at any diagonal angle other than exactly $90^\text{o}$ or parallel to a main plane.

How do axial, coronal, and sagittal medical imaging cuts view cross-sections?

Axial Cut: Top-to-bottom cross-section viewpoint. Coronal Cut: Front-to-back cross-section viewpoint. Sagittal Cut: Side-to-side cross-section viewpoint.

What sub-cavities make up the dorsal cavity and the ventral cavity?

Dorsal Cavity: Cranial cavity (contains brain) and vertebral canal (contains spinal cord). Ventral Cavity: Thoracic cavity (bounded inferiorly by diaphragm) and abdominopelvic cavity (extends from diaphragm down to groin).

What are the three subdivisions of the thoracic cavity, and what structures does the mediastinum contain?

Subdivisions: Two pleural cavities, one pericardial cavity, and the mediastinum. The mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except the lungs themselves (heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, large blood vessels).

What are the two layers and lubricating liquid of serous membranes, and what are the specific named serous membranes for the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities?

Layers: Parietal layer (lines cavity wall) and Visceral layer (adheres to internal organs/viscera). Liquid: Serous fluid. Named membranes: Pleura (pleural cavities/lungs), Pericardium (pericardial cavity/heart), and Peritoneum (abdominopelvic cavity/viscera).

Which major organs reside in the Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ), Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ), Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ), and Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)?

RUQ: Liver, gallbladder, parts of large/small intestines. LUQ: Stomach, spleen, pancreas. RLQ: Appendix, cecum, right ovary/uterine tube. LLQ: Majority of small intestine, sigmoid colon.

What are the four primary general features of epithelial tissue?

1) High cellularity (tightly packed cells with minimal extracellular matrix), 2) Continuous sheet arrangement, 3) Avascularity (lacks internal blood supply, relies on diffusion), and 4) High capacity for regeneration.

What are the three structural domains of epithelial cells, and what two layers compose the basement membrane?

Domains: Apical (free) surface, Lateral surfaces (with cell junctions), and Basal surface. Basement Membrane Layers: Basal lamina (secreted by epithelial cells) and Reticular lamina (secreted by connective tissue).

How is epithelial tissue classified based on arrangement of layers and cell shape?

Layers: Simple (single layer for filtration/absorption/secretion), Pseudostratified (appears multilayered, all touch basement membrane), Stratified (two or more layers for protection). Shapes: Squamous (flat/scale-like), Cuboidal (cube/hexagon-shaped), Columnar (tall/column-like), Transitional (changes shape from flat to cuboidal).

What are the specialized simple squamous epithelial subtypes known as mesothelium and endothelium?

Mesothelium: Lines serous membranes (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum). Endothelium: Forms the smooth inner lining of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.

What distinguishes nonciliated simple columnar epithelium from ciliated simple columnar epithelium in structure and location?

Nonciliated: Features microvilli at apical surface and goblet cells; lines majority of the GI tract. Ciliated: Features motile cilia at apical surface and goblet cells; lines upper respiratory tract and fallopian (uterine) tubes.

What locations correspond to keratinized stratified squamous, nonkeratinized stratified squamous, and transitional epithelia?

Keratinized Stratified Squamous: Superficial layer of skin (epidermis). Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous: Wet internal surfaces (vagina, esophagus). Transitional Epithelium: Urinary bladder, ureters, and portions of urethra.

How do endocrine glands differ structurally and functionally from exocrine glands?

Endocrine Glands: Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into interstitial fluid and blood. Exocrine Glands: Secrete products into ducts that empty onto a structural surface or into an organ lumen.

What components constitute the extracellular matrix (ECM) of connective tissue?

Ground Substance (water entrapment via Glycosaminoglycans like hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate, plus fibronectin) and Matrix Fibers (collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers).

What are the roles of fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, and adipocytes in connective tissue?

Fibroblasts: Secrete ground substance and matrix fibers. Macrophages: Phagocytic cells derived from monocytes that engulf bacteria/debris. Plasma Cells: Develop from B lymphocytes and secrete antibodies. Mast Cells: Produce histamine during inflammation. Adipocytes: Store triglycerides.

What sub-categories form Loose Connective Tissue, Dense Connective Tissue, Cartilage, and Bone Tissue?

Loose CT: Areolar, Adipose (white and brown), Reticular. Dense CT: Dense regular, Dense irregular, Elastic. Cartilage: Hyaline, Fibrocartilage, Elastic. Bone: Compact, Spongy.

How do epithelial tissue and connective tissue compare regarding cell density, ECM, vascularity, and spatial relationship?

Epithelial Tissue: Tightly packed cells, minimal/absent ECM, completely avascular, forms surface layers/linings. Connective Tissue: Widely scattered cells, extensive ECM, typically highly vascular (except cartilage/tendons), located deep beneath surface layers.

What are the three types of epithelial membranes and one non-epithelial membrane?

Epithelial Membranes: Mucous membranes (mucosae), Cutaneous membrane (skin), and Serous membranes (serosae). Non-Epithelial Membrane: Synovial membranes (formed by synoviocytes over loose CT/fat, lining joint cavities).

What four unique functional properties characterize muscular tissue?

Electrical Excitability (responding to stimuli by generating action potentials), Contractility (shortening forcefully), Extensibility (stretching without damage), and Elasticity (returning to original shape).

What are the microscopic appearance, location, and nervous control of the three muscle tissue types?

Skeletal: Long, unbranched cylindrical, striated, multinucleated (peripheral); attached to bones; voluntary. Cardiac: Short, branched, striated, single central nucleus, intercalated discs; heart wall; involuntary. Smooth: Small, spindle-shaped, non-striated, single central nucleus; walls of hollow organs; involuntary.

What junctions form intercalated discs in cardiac muscle, and what are their specific functions?

Desmosomes (structural welds to hold fibers together during intense contractions) and Gap Junctions (open communication channels for rapid electrical synchronization).

What are the three main structural components of a neuron, and how do neuroglia differ from neurons?

Neuron Parts: Cell Body (Soma), Dendrites (input region), and Axon (impulse propagation). Neuroglia Differ: Neuroglia do not generate or propagate nerve impulses; they surround, protect, support, and nourish neurons, and retain the capacity to divide throughout life.

What are the four types of neuroglia in the Central Nervous System (CNS) and two types in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

CNS Glia: Astrocytes (blood-brain barrier), Oligodendrocytes (myelin sheaths), Microglia (phagocytes), and Ependymal cells (CSF production/circulation). PNS Glia: Schwann cells (myelin sheaths) and Satellite cells (support ganglia cell bodies).

What are the six core functions of bone tissue and the skeletal system?

1) Support, 2) Protection, 3) Assistance in Movement, 4) Mineral Storage and Release (calcium and phosphorus), 5) Blood Cell Production (hemopoiesis in red bone marrow), and 6) Triglyceride Storage (yellow bone marrow).

What are the five general bone shapes, and what is an example of each?

1) Long bones (humerus, femur), 2) Short bones (trapezoid, carpal/tarsal bones), 3) Flat bones (sternum, cranial bones, ribs), 4) Irregular bones (vertebrae, calcaneus), and 5) Sesamoid bones (patella).

What are the macroscopic anatomical regions of a long bone?

Diaphysis (shaft/body), Epiphyses (proximal and distal ends), Metaphyses (regions between diaphysis and epiphyses, containing epiphyseal plate/line), Articular Cartilage, Medullary Cavity, Endosteum, and Periosteum (outer fibrous layer, inner osteogenic layer).

What percentages make up the bone extracellular matrix, and what formula represents hydroxyapatite?

Matrix: $15\%$ water, $30\%$ collagen fibers, and $55\%$ crystallized mineral salts. Hydroxyapatite formula: Calcium phosphate, $\text{Ca}_3(\text{PO}_4)_2$, combined with calcium hydroxide, $\text{Ca(OH)}_2$.

What are the four bone cell types, their origins, and their primary functions?

1) Osteoprogenitor cells: Unspecialized stem cells that divide to form osteoblasts. 2) Osteoblasts: Immature bone builders that secrete collagen and matrix. 3) Osteocytes: Mature bone cells in lacunae that maintain daily metabolism. 4) Osteoclasts: Huge multinucleated cells (from monocytes) that resorb/break down bone matrix.

What structural components compose an osteon (Haversian system) in compact bone?

Concentric lamellae, Osteonic (central/Haversian) canal, Interosteonic (perforating/Volkmann's) canals, Lacunae, Canaliculi, Interstitial lamellae, and Circumferential lamellae (external and internal).

How do compact bone and spongy bone differ in structural unit, location, and vascular access?

Compact Bone: Organized into osteons with central blood vessels; forms external layer of all bones and bulk of diaphyses. Spongy Bone: Lacks osteons; composed of trabeculae lattice without central blood vessels; receives nutrients via diffusion from red bone marrow; fills interiors of short/flat/irregular bones and epiphyses.

What four sets of blood vessels supply bone tissue?

1) Nutrient Artery & Vein (penetrates diaphysis via nutrient foramen), 2) Periosteal Arteries & Veins (enter via Volkmann's canals), 3) Metaphyseal Arteries & Veins, and 4) Epiphyseal Arteries & Veins.

How do intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification differ in embryonic templates and bones produced?

Intramembranous Ossification: Bone forms directly within sheetlike mesenchyme layers; forms flat bones of skull, facial bones, mandible, and medial clavicle. Endochondral Ossification: Bone forms by replacing a hyaline cartilage model derived from mesenchyme; forms most bones of the body (e.g., long bones).

What are the four microscopic zones of the epiphyseal plate from epiphyseal side to diaphyseal side?

1) Zone of resting cartilage, 2) Zone of proliferating cartilage, 3) Zone of hypertrophic cartilage, and 4) Zone of calcified cartilage.

How do interstitial growth and appositional growth differ in bone growth mechanism?

Interstitial Growth: Lengthens bone shaft via chondrocyte cell division on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate. Appositional Growth: Increases bone thickness/diameter as periosteal osteoblasts deposit external circumferential lamellae while endosteal osteoclasts expand the medullary cavity.

What five phases comprise the homeostatic bone remodeling cycle?

1) Resting Phase, 2) Resorption Phase (osteoclasts carve resorption pit), 3) Reversal Phase (mononuclear cells clear debris), 4) Formation Phase (osteoblasts secrete osteoid), and 5) Mineralization/Calcification Phase.

What are the three successive phases of fracture repair?

1) Reactive Phase (formation of a fracture hematoma within 6 to 8 hours), 2) Reparative Phase (formation of a fibrocartilaginous soft callus followed by a bony hard callus over 3-4 months), and 3) Bone Remodeling Phase (osteoclasts/osteoblasts remodel repair site to normal contour).