AP Psychology Unit 9 Vocabulary

Developmental Psychology

A branch of Psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

\
* Nature vs. Nurture
* Continuity and stages
* Stability and change

Nature vs. Nurture

Interaction between genetic inheritance and our experiences.

\
* Genes vs. experiences control our development

Continuity and stages

Whether development is gradual and continuous or a series of relatively abrupt changes.

\
Stage theories proposed by Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Erik Erikson

Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Erik Erikson

Who proposed the stage theories for continuity and stages of development?

Stability and change

Whether our traits endure or change as we age

\
* Temperament is stable
* Traits, such as social attitudes, can change

Conception

Fusion of a sperm and egg cell to form a zygote; 20,000+ genes combined

Zygote

The fertilized egg; It enters a 2week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

\
* Cell differentiate to specialize in structure and function (twins also happen here where the ________ divides)

uterine, embryo, placenta

\*Zygote attaches to the ____ wall; Inner cells become the ______ and outer cells become the _________

Embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

\
* Placenta
* Organs form and function (heart begins to beat)

Placenta

Transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to embryo

Fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens (“monster maker”)

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

\
* Ex: alcohol (FAS)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking (In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features)

\
* Birth defects, behavior problems, hyperactivity, decreased intelligence, and risk of alcohol use disorder in offspring
* Epigenetic effect: alcohol leaves chemical marks on DNA that switch genes abnormally on and off

root and suck

Give an example of a baby’s reflex that contributes to their survival.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation (As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner)

Novelty-preference procedure (visual preference)

A task in which an infant is shown a new object simultaneously with a familiar one. It is used in studies of infant cognition, based on the fact that infants will visually inspect a new object in preference to looking at a familiar object.

\
* Cats and dogs; Infants prefer faces and smell of mother
* Sensation and perception

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience (differ in timing and culture).

\
* Ex: stand before walking; Physical, cognitive, and social milestones

brain cells, neurons, neural networks, outward, complex

* ________ are overproduced in the womb (28 weeks), decreases, and stabilizes
* One is born with the most number of _________ they will ever have in their entire life
* Beginning from birth, ____________/connections form and branch _______, becoming more ________ (continues until puberty)

Frontal lobe

Part of the brain responsible for planning and judgement. Forms during infancy.

Association areas

Part of the brain associated with thinking, memory, and language.

\
* Forms last during infancy and childhood

pruning process

Use-it-or-lose- it process that begins during or after puberty: shuts down unused neural links and strengthens the others

cerebellum, bladder, hormones

* Development of muscles and nervous system (such as _________) leads to skills: roll over, sit, crawl, walk, run (universal although timing may be different)
* Bowel and __________ control (certain __________ regulate this)

Back-to-sleep position

Putting babies to sleep on their backs to reduce the risk of a smothering crib death

Infantile Amnesia

Inability of adults to recollect memories prior to 3 or 3 ½ years old.

\
* Partly because major brain areas, such as hippocampus and frontal lobes have not yet matured
* No CONSCIOUS memory from before age 4 but nervous system remembers; Ex: traces of forgotten childhood languages (relearning proves this)

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Jean Piaget

Developmental Psychologist who believed a child’s mind develops through a series of stages (simple reflexes to abstract reasoning).

\
* Came up with a cognitive developmental theory, which focuses on how our cognitions develop in stages as we mature
* Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational
* He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth are assimilation and accommodation

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

\
* Ex: dogs, cats, love

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

\
* Ex: calling a “cat” a “dog” based on schema “dog”

Accommodation

Adapting our current understanding (schemas) to incorporate new information.

\
* Ex: knowing a dog and cat are different

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operation

Four major stages of cognitive development:

Sensorimotor Stage

In Piaget’s Theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of the sensory impressions and motor activities.

\
* Senses: looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping
* Children understand and show disbelief towards things that violate the laws of nature (ex: ball stopping in midair) and they recognize when numbers change
* Object permanence

Object Permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Preoperational Stage

In Piaget’s Theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic (such as imagining an action and mentally reversing it).

\
* Symbolic Thinking

Conservation

The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Symbolic Thinking

Representing things with words and images.

\
* Ex: model room representing identical larger room

Egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

\
* Ex: children cover their eyes, thinking others won’t see them if they can’t see

Curse of knowledge

Overestimating the extent to which others share our opinions and perspectives.

Theory of Mind

People’s ideas about their own and other’s mental states –about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

\
* Realization that others might hold false beliefs

Concrete Operational Stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

\
* Children understand conservation, jokes, and mathematical transformations

Formal Operational Stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts (such as imagined realities and symbols)

\
* Systematic reasoning

Lev Vygotsky, words, social

__An Alternative Viewpoint: ___________Scaffolding__

* ___________ noted children think in _______ to solve problems
* Interaction with ________ environment
* Scaffolding
* Zone of Proximal Development

Scaffolding

Process that enables a child to solve a problem carry out a task, or achieve a goal that would be beyond unassisted efforts.

\
* Parents or teachers provide a “step” that the child or student can step on and learn
* Ex: language

Zone of Proximal Development

What the child could do with help (between what they can and cannot do)

influential, sequence, continuous, social, conceptual

__Reflecting on Piaget’s theory__

* __________ theory; __________ of cognitive milestones
* Development is more __________
* Larger emphasis on __________ factors; __________ abilities (problem solving, abstract thinking, creativity, etc.)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors (different levels of severity).

\
* Poor communication among brain regions that normally work together
* Related genes interact with environment
* Impaired theory of mind and less usage of personal pronouns
* Decreased brain-mirroring activity
* Increase in testosterone leads to more autistic traits (affects 4 boys for every 1 girl)
* Biological Factors: genetic influences and abnormal brain development

social, personal, brain-mirroring, testosterone

__Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)__ - a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and __________ interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors (different levels of severity)

* Poor communication among brain regions that normally work together
* ASD-related genes interact with environment; Impaired theory of mind and less usage of __________ pronouns; Decreased __________ activity
* Increase in __________ leads to more autistic traits (affects 4 boys for every 1 girl)
* Biological Factors: genetic influences and abnormal brain development; Genes

political, one another, cultures, styles, attitudes

\*Parents influence their children in areas such as manners and _________ and religious beliefs, but are limited in other areas, such as personality

* Two children in the same family are as different from _________ as two children picked randomly from the population
* As children attempt to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt their _________ – _________, accents, slang, and _________
* Selection Effect
* By choosing their children’s neighborhoods and schools, parents exert some influence over peer group culture; Children do look to parents for future advice and usually more important matters (education, responsibility, etc.)

schools, future, education

\*Parents influence their children in areas such as manners and political and religious beliefs, but are limited in other areas, such as personality

* Two children in the same family are as different from one another as two children picked randomly from the population
* As children attempt to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt their culture – styles, accents, slang, and attitudes
* Selection Effect
* By choosing their children’s neighborhoods and _________, parents exert some influence over peer group culture; Children do look to parents for _________ advice and usually more important matters (_________, responsibility, etc.)

Selection Effect

Seeking those with similar attitudes and interests.

Life-span Perspective

Development is lifelong

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

mixed, challenge, psychological, hormones

\*For boys, early maturation has _______ effects; For girls, early maturation can be a _______ (_______ effect and how people react)

\n

\*During puberty, surge of _______ intensify moods and trigger bodily changes (sequence is the same but timing differs); Frontal lobes mature and growth of myelin sheath enables improved judgement, impulse control, and long-term planning

* Emotional limbic system and reckless behaviors/decisions

\n

\*Teens are self-focused;

moods, timing, frontal lobes, myelin sheath

\*For boys, early maturation has mixed effects; For girls, early maturation can be a challenge (psychological effect and how people reaction)

\
\*During puberty, surge of hormones intensify _______ and trigger bodily changes (sequence is the same but _______ differs); _______ _______ mature and growth of _______ _______ enables improved judgement, impulse control, and long-term planning

* Emotional limbic system and reckless behaviors/decisions

\
\*Teens are self-focused;

judgement, impulse, limbic, self-focused

\*For boys, early maturation has mixed effects; For girls, early maturation can be a challenge (psychological effect and how people reaction)

\
\*During puberty, surge of hormones intensify moods and trigger bodily changes (sequence is the same but timing differs); Frontal lobes mature and growth of myelin sheath enables improved _______, _______ control, and long-term planning

* Emotional _______ system and reckless behaviors/decisions

\
\*Teens are _______;

Myelin Sheath

Fatty tissue around axons that speed up neurotransmission for better communication).

Self-absorption

Preoccupation with one's own emotions, interests, or situation

reasoning, actions, low, emotions, explain

\*Moral ________ (think morally) guides moral ________ (act accordingly); “________ road” of unconscious, automatic thinking

\
\*Moral ________/reactions sometimes drive moral judgements and behavior; We sometimes use moral reasoning to ________ what we intuitively feel

Moral Reasoning

The thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong (what led you to the decision of whether that is right or wrong).

Preconventional Morality

Before 9: Self-interest; Obey rules to gain social approval or maintain social order.

\
* Ex: “If you save your wife, you’ll be a hero”

Conventional Morality

Early adolescence: Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

\
* Ex: “If you steal the drug, everyone will think you’re a criminal”

Postconventional Morality

Adolescence and beyond: Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

\
* Ex: “People have a right to live”; Mostly in individualistic western cultures

Psychologist Jonathan Haidt’s Moral Intuition

“Quick, gut feelings, or affectively laden intuitions” (we make moral judgements quick and automatically without thinking)

Identity

Our sense of self; According to Erikson, the adolescent’s task it to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Social Identity

The “we” aspect of our self-concept; The part of our answer to “who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

\
* Ex: sensing the Chinese culture/self when in American culture environment

Purpose

A desire to accomplish something personally meaningful that makes a difference to the world beyond oneself.

Intimacy

In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; A primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood (may or may not be sexual)

Emerging Adulthood

For some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.

X Chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women; Females have two “X” chromosomes; Males have one; An “X” chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y Chromosome

The sex chromosome found only in males; When paired with an “X” chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child (triggers production of testosterone).

Testosterone

The most important of the male sex hormones; Both males and females have it, but the additional ____________ in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Spermarche

First ejaculation in boys (about age 14).

Menarche

The first menstrual period (about age 12 ½).

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair (pubic and underarm).

Intersex Individuals

Individuals that are born with intermediate or unusually combinations of male and female characteristics due to atypical hormone exposure or sensitivity; Research suggests sex-reassignment surgery can be problematic

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

STDs; Can be prevented with safe-sex practices and condoms

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

A life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

\
* Depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections

papillomavirus, control, guilt, alcohol, media

\*A vaccination administered before sexual contact can prevent most human ___________ infections

\
__Environmental Factors That Caused Increase in Teen Pregnancy Rates:__

* Minimal communication about birth ___________ with parents, partners, and peers
* ___________ related to sexual activity
* ___________ Use (depresses judgements, inhibition, and self-awareness)
* Mass ___________ norms of unprotected and impulsive sexuality (movies, social media, etc.)

\n

\*High intelligence, religious engagement, father presence, and participation in service learning programs lead to teen sexual restraint

intelligence, religious, father, service learning, programs

\*A vaccination administered before sexual contact can prevent most human papillomavirus infections

\
__Environmental Factors That Caused Increase in Teen Pregnancy Rates:__

* Minimal communication about birth control with parents, partners, and peers
* Guilt related to sexual activity
* Alcohol Use (depresses judgements, inhibition, and self-awareness)
* Mass media norms of unprotected and impulsive sexuality (movies, social media, etc.)

\
\*High __________, __________ engagement, __________ presence, and participation in __________ __________ __________ lead to teen sexual restraint

Sexual Orientation

An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).

* No evidence of environmental influences

Older-Brother/Fraternal Birth-Order Effect

Man’s likelihood of homosexuality as a function of his number of older brothers (the more brother they have, the higher the chances of homosexuality in younger brothers)

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation; Also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

muscular, sensory, weakens, frontal, telomeres, recall

__Physical Changes As One Gets Older:__

* _________ Strength, reaction time, _________ abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline; Exercise can slow this down
* Health: immune system _________
* Aging Brain: atrophy of _________ lobes leads to neural processing lag; _________, chromosome tips, wear down and decreases chances of normal genetic replication; _________ vs. recognition

Cross-Sectional Study

A study in which people of difference ages are compared with one another

Longitudinal Study

Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Terminal Decline

The cognitive decline in the final few years of life

Midlife Transition

Transition to middle adulthood; A crisis/time of great struggle, regret, or even feeling struck down by life (usually caused by significant life event, such as loss of job).

\
* Ex: men buying sport cars at 40

Social Clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

intimacy, generativity, cohabiting

\*Adulthood’s dominant themes are love (______) and work (______); ______ doesn’t work because of less commitment due to inofficial relationship as well as less suggestion or marriage

Empty Nest Syndrome

Grief parents feel when children leave home

amygdala, negative, hippocampus, brain

\*__________ (emotions) responds LESS actively to __________ events (but not to positive events) and interacts LESS with the __________ (memory); __________-wave reactions to negative images decrease with age

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross

__________________’s Stages of Coping with Death:__ 

* Denial: Avoidance, confusion, shock
* Anger: Frustration, anxiety
* Bargaining: struggling to find meaning, telling the story to others
* Depression: overwhelmed, helplessness
* Acceptance: exploring options, new plan, moving on

\n

\*People don’t grieve in predictable stages

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

__Elisabeth Kubler-Ross’s Stages of Coping with Death:__ 

* _______: Avoidance, confusion, shock
* _______: Frustration, anxiety
* _______: struggling to find meaning, telling the story to others
* _______: overwhelmed, helplessness
* _______: exploring options, new plan, moving on

\
\*People don’t grieve in predictable stages

Integrity

A feeling that one’s life has been meaningful and worthwhile.

\
* Psychosocial task (Erikson) in late adulthood where one reflects on life and feels integrity or despair

Stranger Anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age and peaking around 13 months of age.

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person; Shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. Satisfaction of nourishmentBody contact; Harry Harlow’s studies show infants prefer comfortable, soothing mothersFamiliarity breeds safety and content

Critical Period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period.

Sensitive Period

Period early in the life where children become attached to things they’re merely exposed.